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THE   DEAF 


THEIR  POSITION  IN  SOCI- 
ETY AND  THE  PROVISION 
FOR  THEIR  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 


BY 
HARRY  BEST 

ll 


NEW  YORK 

THOMAS  Y.  CROWELL  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


^0 


•    »     • 


:•  :  • 


cjoptright,  191^ 
By  ELAERY  best. 


\ 


Published  April,  1914. 


TO 

THE  DEAF  OF  THE  LAND 

AND  TO  THOSE  WHO  LOVE  THEM 


292220 


FOREWORD 

THE  aim  of  the  present  study  is  to  ascer- 
tain as  far  as  possible  the  standing  of  the 
deaf,  or,  as  they  are  so  often  called,  the 
"  deaf  and  dumb,"  in  society  in  America,  and  to 
examine  the  treatment  that  has  been  accorded  to 
them — to  present  an  account  of  an  element  of 
the  population  of  whom  little  is  generally  known. 
In  this  effort  regard  is  had  not  only  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  deaf  themselves,  but  also,  with  the 
growing  concern  in  social  problems,  to  the  fixing 
of  a  status  for  them  in  the  domain  of  the  social 
sciences.  In  other  words,  the  design  may  be  said 
to  be  to  set  forth  respecting  the  deaf  something 
of  what  the  social  economist  terms  a  "  survey," 
or,  as  it  may  more  popularly  be  described,  to  tell 
"  the  story  of  '  the  deaf  and  dumb.'  " 

The  material  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
the  work  has  been  collected  from  various  docu- 
ments, and  from  not  a  little  personal  correspond- 
ence: from  the  reports  and  other  publications 
of  schools  for  the  deaf,  of  organizations  interested 
in  the  deaf,  of  state  charities,  education  or  other 
departments,  of  the  United  States  bureaus  of 
education  and  of  the  census;  from  the  proceed- 


vi  FOREWORD 

ings  of  bodies  interested  in  the  education  of  the 
deaf,  of  organizations  composed  of  the  deaf,  of 
state  and  national  conferences  of  charities  and 
corrections;  from  the  statutes  of  the  several 
states ;  and  from  similar  publications.  From  the 
American  Annals  of  the  Deaf  the  writer  has 
drawn  unsparingly,  and  to  it  a  verj^  considerable 
debt  is  owed.  Valuable  assistance  has  also  been 
obtained  from  the  Volta  Review,  formerly  the 
Association  Review,  and  from  papers  published 
by  the  deaf  or  in  schools  for  the  deaf.  Other 
sources  of  information  used  will  be  noted  from 
time  to  time  in  the  work  itself. 

For  all  that  has  been  set  down  the  writer  is 
alone  responsible.  He  is,  however,  keenly  mind- 
ful of  all  the  co-operation  that  has  been  given  him, 
and  it  would  be  most  pleasant  if  it  were  possible  to 
relate  by  name  those  who  have  been  of  aid.  Mere 
words  of  thanks  could  but  ;^  very  little  express 
the  sense  of  obhgation  that  is  felt  towards  all 
of  these.  Indeed,  one  of  the  most  delightful 
features  connected  with  the  work  has  been  the 
response  which  as  a  rule  has  been  elicited  by  the 
writer's  inquiries ;  and  in  some  cases  so  courteous 
and  gracious  have  been  the  correspondents  and 
informants  that  one  might  at  times  think  that  a 
favor  were  being  done  them  in  the  making  of  the 
request.  To  certain  ones  the  writer  cannot  escape 
mentioning  his  appreciation:  to  Dr.  E.  A.  Fay, 


FOREWORD  vii 

editor  of  the  American  Annals  of  the  Deaf,  and 
vice-president  of  Gallaudet  College;  Dr.  J.  R. 
Dobyns,  of  the  Mississippi  School,  and  secretary 
of  the  Convention  of  American  Instructors  of  the 
Deaf;  Mr.  Fred  Deland,  of  the  Volta  Bureau; 
Mr.  E.  A.  Hodgson,  editor  of  the  Deaf-Mutes' 
Journal;  Mr.  E.  H.  Currier,  of  the  New  York 
Institution,  and  Dr.  T.  F.  Fox  and  Mr.  Ignatius 
Bjorlee,  also  of  this  institution;  Dr.  Joseph  A. 
Hill,  of  the  Census  Bureau;  Mr.  Alexander 
Johnson,  formerly  secretary  of  the  National  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Corrections ;  Dr.  H.  H. 
Hart,  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation;  Profes- 
sor S.  M.  Lindsay  and  Dr.  E.  S.  Whitin,  of  Co- 
lumbia University;  and  to  the  officials  of  the 
Library  of  Congress,  of  the  New  York  Public 
Library,  of  the  New  York  State  Library,  of  the 
New  York  School  of  Philanthropy  Library,  of 
the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  of  the 
Columbia  University  Library,  of  the  Volta  Bur- 
eau, and  of  the  Gallaudet  College  Library. 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 
INTBODUCTION    2dil 

Part  I 

POSITION  OF  THE  DEAF  IN  SOCIETY 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Deaf  in  the  United  States  3 

Meaning  of  Term  "  Deaf  "  in  the  Present  Study — 
Number  of  the  Deaf  in  the  United  States — Age 
when  Deafness  Occurred — Ability  of  the  Deaf  to 
Speak — Means  of  Communication  Employed  by 
the  Deaf. 


13 


II.  The  Deaf  as  a  Pebmanent  Element  of  the  Popula- 
tion     

Increase  in  the  Number  of  the  Deaf  in  Relation 
to  the  Increase  in  the  General  Population — 
The  Adventitiously  Deaf  and  the  Congenitally 
Deaf — Adventitious  Deafness  and  its  Causes — 
Possible  Action  for  the  Prevention  of  Adventi- 
tious Deafness — Adventitious  Deafness  as  an  In- 
creasing or  Decreasing  Phenomenon — ^The  Con- 
genitally Deaf — The  OfiPspring  of  Consanguine- 
ous Marriages — ^The  Deaf  Having  Deaf  Relatives 
— ^The  Offspring  of  Deaf  Parents — Possible  Action 
for  the  Prevertion  of  Congenital  Deafness — Con- 
genital Deafness  as  an  Increasing  or  Decreasing 
Phenomenon — Conclusions  with  Respect  to  the 
Elimination  or  Prevention  of  Deafness. 


III.  Tbeatment  of  the  Deaf  by  the  State 63 

General  Attitude  of  the  Law  towards  the  Deaf — 
Legislation  Discriminatory  respecting  the  Deaf — 
Legislation  in  Protection  of  the  Deaf — Legisla- 
tion in  Aid  of  the  Deaf — Tenor  of  Court  Decis- 
ions Affecting  the  Deaf — Present  Trend  of  the 
Law  in  Respect  to  the  Deaf. 
ix 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IV.  Economic  Condition  of  the  Deaf 75 

The  Extent  to  which  the  Deaf  are  a  Wage-earn- 
ing and  Self-supporting  Element  of  the  Popula- 
tion— Views  of  the  Deaf  as  to  their  Economic 
Standing — The  Deaf  as  Alms-seekers — Homes  for 
the  Deaf — Conclusions  with  Respect  to  the  Eco- 
nomic Position  of  the  Deaf. 


'C: 


V.  Social  Obganization  of  the  Deaf 91 


Social  Cleavage  from  the  General  Population — 
Desirability  of  Organizations  Composed  of  the 
Deaf — Purposes,  Activities,  and  Extent  of  Such 
Organizations — Newspapers  of  the  Deaf. 


VI.  PopuLAB  Conceptions  concerning  the  Deaf. 


Viewed  as  a  Strange  Class — Viewed  as  a  Defec- 
tive Class — Viewed  as  an  Unhappy  Class — 
Viewed  as  a  Dependent  Class — Need  of  a 
Changed  Regard  for  the  Deaf. 

VII.  Pbivate  Obganizations  Interested  in  the  Deap.  . . .  107 

General    Societies   Interested   in  the  Deaf — ^The 
Volta     Bureau — Parents'     Associations    for    the 
^  Deaf — Church  Missions  to  the  Deaf — Organiza- 

tions Interested  in  the  Education  of  the  Deaf — 
Publications  Devoted  to  the  Interests  of  the  Deaf. 


Part  II 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  DEAF 

VIII.  The  Education  of  the  Deaf  Priob  to  its  Introduc- 

tion INTO  the  United  States  119 

IX.  History  of  Education  of  the  Deaf  in  the  United 

States    129 

Early  Attempts  at  Instruction — Beginning  of 
the  First  Schools — Early  Ideas  concerning  the 
Schools  for  the  Deaf — Aims  of  the  Founders — 
Extension  of  the  Means  of  Instruction  over  the 
Country. 


CONTENTS  xi 


f!HAPTEB  PAGE 

X.  Organization  of  the  Institutions  and  General  Pro- 
visions    171 

Arrangements  in  the  Different  States — Semi- 
Public  Institutions — "  Dual  Schools  " — Provision 
for  the  Deaf-Blind — Provision  for  the  Feeble- 
minded Deaf — Government  of  the  Different  In- 
stitutions— Procedure  in  States  without  Institu- 
tions. 


XI.  The  Day  School  for  the  Deaf 187 

Inception  and  Growth  of  the  Day  School — Design 
and  Scope  of  Day  Schools — Extent  and  Organ- 
ization of  Day  Schools — Arguments  for  the  Day 
School — Arguments  against  the  Day  School — 
Evening  Schools  for  Adults. 


Xn.  Denominational  and  Private  Schools  202 

Denominational  Schools — Private  Schools. 

XIII.  The  National  College  206 

XIV.  Provision  for  Education  by  States 209 

XV.  Constitutional  Provisions  for  Schools  242 

Extent  of  Constitutional  Provisions — Language 
and  Forms  of  Provisions. 

XVI.  Question  of  the  Charity  Connection  of  Schools  . .  248 

Institutions  Sometimes  Regarded  as  Educational : 
Sometimes  as  Charitable — Charity  in  Connection 
with  Schools  for  the  Deaf — Arguments  for  the 
Connection  with  Boards  of  Charities — Arguments 
in  Opposition  to  the  Connection — Conclusions  in 
Respect  to  the  Charity  Connection  of  Schools  for 
the  Deaf. 


XVII.  Provisions  concerning  Admission  of  Pupils  into 

Schools    262 

Rules  as  to  the  Payment  of  Fees — Provision  for 
the  Collateral  Support  of  Pupils — Age  Limits  of 
Attendance. 


xii  CONTENTS 


GHAPTSB  PA6B 

XVIII.  Attendance  upon  the  Schools   268 

The  Proportion  of  the  Deaf  in  the  Schools— The 
Need  of  Compulsory  Education  Laws  for  the 
Deaf — Present  Extent  of  Compulsory  Education 
Laws. 

XIX.  Methods  of  Instbuction  in  Schools   277 

The  Use  of  Signs  as  a  Means  of  Communication 
— Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Oral  Movement — 
Present  Methods  of  Instruction — Courses  of 
Study  and  Gradations  of  Pupils — Industrial 
Training  in  the  Schools. 

XX.  Cost  to  the  State  fob  Education  293 

Value  of  the  Property  Used  for  the  Education  of 
the  Deaf — Cost  of  the  Maintenance  of  the  Schools 
— Form  of  Public  Appropriations — Cost  to  the 
State  for  Each  Pupil. 

XXI.  Public  Donations  of  Land  to  Schools  299 

Grants  by  the  National  Government — Grants  by 
the  States — Grants  by  Cities  or  Citizens. 

XXII.  Pbivate  Benefactions  to  Schools   303 

Donations  of  Money — Gifts  for  Pupils — Present 
Tendencies  of  Private  Benefactions. 

XXIII.  Conclusions  with  Respect  to  the  Wobk  fob  the 

Deaf  in   Amebica    309 

APPENDIX  A 325 

Table    with    Respect    to    Homes    fob    the    Deaf   in 
Amebica. 

APPENDIX  B  326 

Tables    with   Respect   to   Schools   fob  the   Deaf  in 
Amebica. 

I.  Public    IxsTmrTioNs 326 

II.  Public  Day  Schools 329 

III.  Denominational  and  Pbivate  Schools 331 

INDEX    333 


INTRODUCTION 

SOCIETY  as  a  whole  knows  little  of  the 
deaf,  or  the  so-called  deaf  and  dumb.  They 
do  not  form  a  large  part  of  the  population, 
and  many  people  seldom  come  in  contact  with 
them.  Their  affliction  to  a  great  extent  removes 
them  from  the  usual  avenues  of  intercourse  with 
men  and  debars  them  from  many  of  the  social 
activities  of  life,  all  tending  to  make  the  deaf 
more  or  less  a  class  apart  in  the  community. 
They  would  seem,  then,  to  have  received  separate 
treatment,  as  a  section  not  wholly  absorbed  and 
lost  in  the  general  population,  but  in  a  measure 
standing  out  and  differentiated  from  the  rest  of 
their  kind.  Thus  it  comes  that  society  has  to  take 
notice  of  them.  By  reason  of  their  condition 
certain  duties  are  called  forth  respecting  them, 
and  certain  provision  has  to  be  made  for  them. 

The  object  of  the  present  study  of  the  deaf  is 
to  consider  primarily  the  attitude  of  society  or 
the  state  in  America  towards  them,  the  duties  it 
has  recognized  in  respect  to  them,  the  status  it 
has  created  for  them,  and  the  extent  and  forms, 
as  well  as  the  adequacy  and  correctness,  of  this 
treatment.    Hence  in  our  study  of  the  problems 

xiii 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

of  the  deaf,  the  approach  is  not  to  be  by  the  way 
of  medicine,  or  of  law,  or  of  education,  though  all 
these  aspects  will  be  necessarily  touched  upon. 
Nor  is  our  study  to  deal  with  this  class  as  a 
problem  of  psychology  or  of  mental  or  physical 
abnormality,  though  more  or  less  consideration 
will  have  to  be  given  to  these  points.  Nor  yet 
again  are  we  to  concern  ourselves  principally  with 
what  is  known  as  the  "  human  interest  "  question, 
though  we  should  be  much  disappointed  if  there 
were  not  found  an  abundance  of  human  interest 
in  what  we  shall  have  to  consider.  Rather,  then, 
we  are  to  regard  the  deaf  as  certain  components 
of  the  state  who  demand  classification  and  at- 
tention in  its  machinery  of  organization.  Our 
attitude  is  thus  that  of  the  social  economist,  and 
the  object  of  our  treatment  is  a  part  or  section  of 
the  community  in  its  relation  to  the  greater  and 
more  solidified  body  of  society. 

More  particularly,  our  purpose  is^jtwofold. 
We  first  consider  the  deaf,  who  they  are,  and 
their  place  in  society,  and  then  examine  the  one 
great  form  of  treatment  which  the  state  gives, 
namely,  the  making  of  provision  for  their  educa- 
tion. This  we  have  attempted  to  do  in  two 
parts.  Part  I  treating  of  the  position  of  the  deaf 
in  society,  and  Part  II  of  the  provisions  made 
for  their  education.  As  we  shall  find,  the  special 
care  of  the  state  for  the  deaf  to-day  has  assumed 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

practically  this  one  form.  Means  of  education 
are  extended  to  all  the  state's  deaf  children,  and 
with  this  its  attention  for  the  most  part  ceases. 
It  has  come  to  be  seen  that  after  they  have  re- 
ceived an  education,  they  deserve  or  require  little 
further  aid  or  concern.  But  it  has  not  always 
been  the  policy  of  the  state  to  allow  to  the  deaf 
the  realization  that  they  form  in  its  citizenship 
an  element  able  to  look  out  for  themselves,  and 
demanding  little  of  its  special  oversight.  They 
have  a  story  full  of  interest  to  tell,  for  the  way 
of  the  deaf  to  the  attainment  of  this  position  has 
been  long  and  tortuous,  being  first  looked  upon 
as  wards,  and  then  by  slow  gradations  coming  to 
the  full  rights  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship. 
In  this  final  stage,  where  the  state  provides 
education  for  the  deaf  only  as  it  provides  it  for 
all  others,  and  attempts  little  beyond,  the  deaf 
find  themselves  on  a  level  with  citizens  in  general 
in  the  state's  regard. 

In  Part  I,  after  we  have  ascertained  who  are 
nieant^by:  the--"  deaf/'  and ^to^^^iany  of  them, 
there  are,  we  are  to  find  ourselves  confronted  by 
a  question  which  is  of  the  foremost  concern  to 
society;  namely,  whether  the  deaf  are  to  be  con- 
sidered a  permanent  part  of  the  population,  or 
whether  society  may  have  means  at  hand  to 
eliminate  or  prevent  deafness.  After  this,  our 
discussion  will  revolve  about  the  deaf  from  dif- 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

ferent  points  of  view,  regarding  them  in  the 
several  aspects  in  which  they  appear  to  society. 
We  shall  examine  the  treatment  which  the  state 
in  general  accords  the  deaf,  how  they  are  looked 
upon  in  the  law,  and  what  changes  have  been 
brought  about  in  its  attitude  towards  them.  This 
may  be  said  to  be  the  view  of  the  publicist  or 
legalist.  Next,  we  shall  attempt  to  see  how  far 
the  deaf  are  really  a  class  apart  in  the  life  of  the 
community.  This  will  involve  an  examination, 
on  the  one  hand,  as  to  whether  their  infirmity  is 
a  bar  to  their  independent  self-support,  that  is, 
whether  they  are  potentially  economic  factors  in 
the  world  of  industry,  how  far  their  status  is  due 
to  what  they  themselves  have  done,  and  to  what 
extent  this  result  has  modified  the  regard  and 
treatment  of  society;  and,  on  the  other,  how  far 
their  want  of  hearing  stands  in  the  way  of  their 
mingling  in  the  social  life  of  the  community  in 
which  they  live,  whether  the  effect  of  this  will  tend 
to  force  the  deaf  to  associate  more  with  them- 
selves than  with  the  rest  of  the  people,  and  what 
forms  their  associations  take.  These  will  be  the 
views  respectively  of  the  economist  and  the  socio- 
logist. Then  we  shall  consider  the  regard  in  which 
the  deaf  are  popularly  held,  the  view  of  "  the  man 
in  the  street,"  and  whether  this  regard  is  the 
proper  and  just  one.  Lastly,  we  shall  note  what 
movements  have  been  undertaken  in  the  interests 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

of  the  deaf  by  private  organizations,  and  to  what 
extent  these  have  been  carried. 

In  Part  II  we  shall  consider  the  provision  that 
has  been  made  for  the  instruction  of  deaf  chil- 
dren. First  we  shall  review  the  attempts  at 
instruction  in  the  Old  World,  and  then  carefully 
follow  the  development  of  instruction  in  America, 
considering  the  early  efforts  in  this  direction,  the 
founding  of  the  first  schools,  and  the  spread  of 
the  work  over  the  land;  and  noting  how  it  was 
fijsl  taken  up  by  private  initiative,  in  time  to  be 
seconded  or  taken  over  by  the  state,  and  how  far 
the  state  has  seen  and  performed  its  duty  in  this 
respect.  Public  institutions  have  been  created  in 
nearly  all  the  states,  and  we  shall  examine  the 
organizations  of  these  institutions  and  the  gen- 
eral arrangements  in  the  different  states.  The 
development  of  the  work  also  includes  a  system  of 
day  schools,  a  certain  number  of  private  scBools 
and  a  national  college,  all  of  which  we  shall  con- 
sider, devoting  especial  attention  to  the  day 
schools  and  their  significance.  Following  this, 
we  shall  consider  how  each  state  individually  has 
been  found  to  provide  for  the  instruction  of  the 
deaf,  observing  also  the  extent  to  which  the  states 
have  made  provision  in  their  constitutions,  and 
the  extent  to  which  the  schools  are  regarded  as 
purej[y_ediicational.  Next,  we  shall  proceed  to 
inquire  into  the  terms  of  admission  of  pupils  into 


xviii  INTRODUCTION 

the  schools;  and  we  shall  particularly  concern 
ourselves  with  the  investigation  of  the  question  of 
how  far  the  means  provided  for  education  by  the 
state  are  actually  availed  of  by  the  deaf.  The 
great  technical  problems  involved  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  deaf  will  be  outside  the  province  of 
this  work,  but  we  shall  indicate,  so  far  as  public 
action  may  be  concerned,  the  present  methods  of 
instruction.  This  done,  we  shall  mark  what  is 
the  cost  to  the  state  of  all  this  activity  for  the 
education  of  its  deaf  children,  noting  also  how 
far  the  state  has  been  assisted  in  the  work  by 
private  bengvplence.  In  the  final  chapter  of  our 
study  we  shall  set  down  the  conclusions  which  we 
have  found  in  respect  to  the  work  for  the  deaf  on 
the  whole  in  the  United  States. 


PART  I 

POSITION  OF  THE  DEAP  IN  SOCIETY 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  DEAF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Meaning  of  Term  "  Deaf  "  in  the  Present  Study 

BY  the  "  deaf  "  in  the  present  study  is  meant 
that  element  of  the  population  in  which 
the  sense  of  hearing  is  either  wholly  absent 
or  is  so  slight  as  to  be  of  no  practical  value ;  or  in 
which  there  is  inability  to  hear  and  understand 
spoken  language ;  or  in  which  there  exists  no  real 
sound  perception.  In  other  words,  those  persons 
are  meant  who  may  be  regarded  as  either  totally 
deaf  or  practically  totally  deaf/  With  such 
deafness  there  is  not  infrequently  associated  an 
inability  to  speak,  or  to  use  vocal  language. 
Hence  our  attention  may  be  said  to  be  directed 
to  that  part  of  the  community  which,  by  the  want 
of  the  sense  of  hearing  and  oftentimes  also  of 
the  power  of  speech,  forms  a  special  and  distinct 
class;  and  is  known,  more  or  less  inaccurately, 
as  the  "  deaf  and  dumb  "  or  "  deaf-mutes  "  or 
"  mutes." 

*  There  are  no  sharply  dividing  lines  between  the  different 
degrees  of  deafness,  but  it  is  only  those  described  that  really 

S 


•THE  DEAF 


*  In' our  (Tiis'ciiskiori  ft  "is  with  deafness  that  we  are 
.  primarily  concerned.  Deafness  and  dumbness 
are,  physically,  two  essentially  different  things. 
There  is  no  anatomical  connection  between  the 
organs  of  hearing  and  those  of  speech;  and  the 
structure  and  functioning  of  each  are  such  as 
to  preclude  any  direct  pathological  relation.  The 
number  of  the  so-called  deaf  and  dumb,  more- 
over, who  are  really  dumb  is  very  small — so  small 
actually  as  to  be  negligible.  Almost  all  who 
are  spoken  of  as  deaf  and  dumb  have  organs  of 
speech  that  are  quite  intact,  and  are,  indeed,  con- 
structively perfect.  It  comes  about,  however, 
that  dumbness — considered  as  the  want  of  normal 
and  usual  locution — though  organically  separate 
from  deafness,  is  a  natural  consequence  of  it; 
and  does,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  most  cases  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent,  accompany  or  co-exist 
with  it.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  deaf, 
particularly  those  who  have  always  been  so,  being 
unable  to  hear,  do  not  know  how  to  use  their 
organs  of  speech,  and  especially  are  unable  to 
modulate  their  speech  by  the  ear,  as  the  hearing 
do.  If  the  deaf  could  regain  their  hearing,  they 
would  have  back  their  speech  in  short  order.  The 
character  of  the  human  voice  depends  thus  on  the 
I  ear  to  an  unrealized  degree. 

constitute  a  special  class.  Persons  whose  hearing  is  such  as 
to  be  of  use  even  in  some  slight  degree  are  rather  to  be  dis- 
tinguished as  "  hard  of  hearing." 


THE  DEAF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      5 

Number  of  the  Deaf  in  the  United  States 

According  to  the  census  of  1900  there  were 
37,426  persons  in  the  United  States  enumerated 
as  totally  deaf;  ^  and  according  to  that  of  1910 
there  were  43,812  enumerated  as  "  deaf  and 
dumb."  ^  Hence  we  may  assume  that  there  are 
between  forty  and  fifty  thousand  deaf  persons  in 
the  United  States  forming  a  special  class.*  • 

The  following  table  will  give  the  number  of 
the  deaf  in  the  several  states  and  the  number  per 
million  of  population,  according  to  the  census  of 
1910.* 

^  By  this  census  both  the  partially  deaf  and  the  totally  deaf 
were  enumerated,  or  89,287  in  all.  The  former  should  not  have 
been  enumerated,  the  enumerators  being  instructed  not  to  in- 
clude those  able  to  hear  loud  conversation. 

^  For  the  census  returns  for  1900,  see  "  Special  Reports  of  the 
Census  Office.  The  Blind  and  the  Deaf,"  1906.  This  report 
was  under  the  special  direction  of  Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell, 
who  has  long  been  interested  in  the  deaf.  The  returns  of  the 
census  for  1910  are  yet  to  be  revised,  while  at  the  same  time 
additional  data  are  to  be  secured  to  be  published  as  a  special 
report  like  that  of  1906.  As  yet  the  census  office  has  for  1910 
only  the  actual  enumeration  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  the  vari- 
ous states,  and  the  returns  with  respect  to  other  particulars 
regarding  them  are  yet  to  be  completed.  See  Volta  Review^ 
xiii.,  1911,  p.  399.  Hence  in  our  discussions  we  shall,  except 
for  the  number  by  states,  deal  with  the  census  of  1900.  For 
a  review  of  this  census,  see  American  Annals  of  the  Deaf, 
Sept.,  1906,  to  May,  1907  (li.,  lii.).  In  a  number  of  states  cer- 
tain county  officers  are  required  from  time  to  time  to  enu- 
merate the  deaf.  For  a  census  in  one  state,  see  Bulletin  of 
Labor  of  Massachusetts,  July-Aug.,  1907. 

'  Included  in  the  census  of  1900  were  491  deaf -blind  persons 
(totally  deaf),  and  in  that  of  1910,  584. 

*From  statistics  kindly  furnished  by  the  Census  Bureau. 


6 


THE  DEAF 


NUMBER  OF  THE  DEAF  IN  THE  SEVERAL  STATES 


No. 

United   States    ..  43,812 

Alabama    807 

Arizona    53 

Arkansas  729 

California    784 

Colorado     243 

Connecticut   332 

Delaware 59 

District     of     Co- 
lumbia      114 

Florida 216 

Georgia    956 

Idaho    114 

Illinois     2,641 

Indiana    1,672 

Iowa   950 

Kansas    934 

Kentucky     1,581 

Louisiana    774 

Maine  340 

Maryland    746 

Massachusetts    . .  1,092 

Michigan   1,315 

Minnesota    1,077 

Mississippi    737 

Missouri 1,823 


No,  Peb 

MUililON 
OP 

Popula- 
tion 

476  Montana    

377  Nebraska    

259  Nevada 

464  New  Hampshire 
329i  New  Jersey  . . . 
304  New  Mexico  . . . 

297  New  York 

291  North  Carolina 

344  North  Dakota   . 

286  Ohio    

366  Oklahoma    

349  Oregon   

468  Pennsylvania  . . 
619  Rhode  Island  . . 
427  South  Carolina  . 
552.  South  Dakota   . 

690  Tennessee    

468  Texas   

458  Utah   , 

576  Vermont 

324  Virginia  

468  Washington    

519  West  Virginia    . . 

410  Wisconsin    

553  Wyoming     


No.  Pbb 
Million 

OF 
POPULA- 
NO.         TION 

311 
531 
281 
443 
263 
540 
522 
644 


117 

636 

23 

191 

667 

177 

4,760 

1,421 

239 

2,582 
826 
241 

3,656 
208 
735 
315 

1,231 

1,864 
232 
126 

1,120 
368 
713 

1,251 
24 


414 
539 
491 
359 
477 
383 
485 
539 
563 
478 
621 
354 
543 
323 
584 
537 
159 


From  this  table  the  largest  proportions  of  the 
deaf  appear  to  be  found  in  the  states  rather  to- 
ward the  central  part  of  the  country,  and  the 
smallest  in  the  states  in  the  far  west  and  the  ex- 
treme east.  The  highest  proportions  occur  in 
itentucky,  North  Carolina,  Utah,  Indiana, 
West  Virginia,  Maryland,  Tennessee,  Missouri, 
Kansas,  Virginia,  New  Mexico,  Ohio,  South 
Dakota,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  New  York,  and 
Minnesota,  all  these  states  having  over  500  per 


THE  DEAF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      7 

million  of  population.  The  lowest  proportions 
are  found  in  Wyoming,  Arizona,  New  Jersey, 
Nevada,  Florida,  Delaware,  Connecticut,  Colo- 
rado, Montana,  Washington,  Massachusetts, 
California,  District  of  Columbia,  Idaho,  Ver- 
mont, Oregon,  Alabama,  and  Rhode  Island,  in 
none  of  these  states  the  mmiber  being  over  400 
per  million.  Why  there  should  be  these  dif- 
ferences in  the  respective  proportions  of  the  deaf 
in  the  population  of  the  several  states,  we  cannot 
say ;  and  we  are  generally  unable  to  determine  to 
what  the  variations  are  to  be  ascribed — whether 
they  are  to  be  set  down  to  particular  conditions 
of  morbidity,  the  intensity  of  congenital  deafness, 
or  other  influences  operating  in  different  sections ; 
or,  perhaps  in  some  measure,  to  the  greater 
thoroughness  with  which  the  census  was  taken  in 
some  places  than  in  others. 

Age  When  Deafness  Occurred 

The  vast  majority  of  the  deaf  lost  their  hearing 
in  early  life,  and  most  of  them  in  the  tender  years 
of  infancy  and  childhood.  More  than  ninety  per 
cent  (90.6,  according  to  the  returns  of  the 
census)  became  deaf  before  the  twentieth  year; 
nearly  three-fourths  (73.7  per  cent)  under 
five;  over  half  (52.4  per  cent)  under  two;  and 
over  a  third  (35.5  per  cent)  were  born  deaf. 
Deafness  thus  occurs  in  a  strongly  diminishing 


8  THE  DEAF 

ratio  with  advancing  years.^  These  facts  may 
be  indicated  by  the  following  table,^  which 
shows  the  percentages  of  those  who  became  deaf 
at  different  ages. 

THE  DEAF  ACCORDING  TO  AGE  OF  OCCURRENCE  OF 
DEAFNESS 

At  birth 35.5 

After  birth  and  under  two 16.9 

Under  two  years 52.4 

2  and  under  4 17.1 

4  and  under  6 7.3 

6  and  under  8  4.5 

8  and  under  10  2.8 

10  and  under  12 1.8 

12  and  under  14 1.6 

14  and  under  16 1.3 

16  and  under  18  1.0 

18  and  under  20  0.8 

Under  five  73.7 

5  and  under  10  10.5 

10  and  under  15  4.0 

15  and  under  20 2.4 

Under  20   90.6 

20  and  under  40  5.7 

40  and  under  60 2.4 

60   and   under   80    1.1 

80  and  over 0.2 

Ability  of  the  Deaf  to  Speak 

We  have  just  seen  that  "  dumbness "  fre- 
quently follows  upon  deafness,  or  that  it  is 
usually  believed  to  be  an  effect  of  deafness.  It 
is  true  that  with  the  majority  of  the  deaf  phonetic 
speech  is  not  employed  to  any  large  extent ;  but 

*This  is  just  the  opposite  of  the  case  with  the  blind. 

2  Special  Reports,  1906,  p.  79.  Some  2,000  cases  were  thrown 
out  for  indefinite  replies,  leaving  35,479,  upon  which  our  per- 
centages are  based. 


THE  DEAF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      9 

there  is  at  the  same  time  a  fair  number  who  can, 
and  do,  use  vocal  language.  This  speech  varies 
to  a  wide  degree,  in  some  approximating  normal 
speech,  and  in  others  being  harsh  and  understood 
with  difficulty;  and  it  depends  in  the  main  upon 
three  conditions:  1.  the  age  at  which  deafness 
occurred,  this  being  the  most  important  factor; 

2.  the  extent  to  which  the  voice  is  cultivated ;  and 

3.  the  remaining  power  of  the  ear  (which  is  found 
but  seldom)  .^ 

Of  the  deaf  persons  enumerated  in  the  census,^ 
21.5  per  cent  were  reported  able  to  speak  well; 
15.8  per  cent  imperfectly;  and  62.7  per  cent  not 
at  all.  In  other  words,  somewhat  over  a  third  of 
the  deaf  can  speak  more  or  less,  one-fifth  being 
able  to  speak  well,  and  one-sixth  imperfectly, 
while  over  three-fifths  do  not  speak  at  all.  The 
dependence  of  the  ability  to  speak  upon  the  age 
of  becoming  deaf  is  clearly  in  evidence  here,  the 
proportion  of  those  not  able  to  speak  showing  a 

*  A  somewhat  frequent  classification  of  the  deaf  in  respect  to 
their  power  to  speak  is  to  regard  them  roughly  as  falling  into 
three  great  divisions :  1.  "  Deaf-mutes,"  who  come  nearest  to 
being  deaf  and  dumb.  They  have  always  been  deaf,  and  have 
never  had  natural  speech.  What  speech  they  may  possess  has 
come  from  special  instruction,  with  the  result  that  it  is  more 
or  less  artificial.  2.  "  Semi-mutes,"  who  are  deaf,  but  who  have 
once  had  hearing  as  well  as  speech;  and  this  speech  they  are 
able  to  use  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  though  in  time  it  is 
likely  to  become  more  and  more  astray.  3.  "  Semi-deaf  "  per- 
sons, who  are  only  partly  deaf,  and  possess  a  little  hearing, 
though  it  is  too  slight  to  be  of  real  practical  use;  and  who 
have  voices  most  nearly  approaching  the  normal.  They  belong 
somewhere  between  the  really  deaf  and  the  hard  of  hearing. 

*  Special  Reports,  pp.  82,  240. 


10  THE  DEAF 

great  decrease  with  the  rise  of  this  age.  Thus,  of 
those  born  deaf,  83.5  per  cent  cannot  speak  at 
all ;  of  those  becoming  deaf  after  birth  and  under 
five,  74.6  per  cent;  of  those  becoming  deaf  after 
five  and  imder  twenty,  26.5  per  cent;  and  of  those 
becoming  deaf  after  twenty,  3.4  per  cent. 

Some  of  the  deaf  are  able  to  read  the  lips  of 
the  speaker,  or  as  it  is  better  expressed,  to  read 
speech,  or  to  understand  what  is  being  said  by 
watching  the  motions  of  the  mouth.  This  in 
reality  is  a  distinct  art  from  the  ability  to  speak, 
though  popularly  they  are  often  thought  to  be 
co-ordinate  or  complementary  one  to  the  other. 
Like  the  ability  to  speak,  it  varies  in  wide  degree, 
from  the  ability  to  understand  simple  and  easy 
expressions  only,  to  the  ability  to  follow  pro- 
tracted discourse;  and  like  the  ability  to  speak, 
it  is  found  in  increasing  frequency  with  the  rise 
of  the  age  of  becoming  deaf.  According  to  the 
census,^  38.6  per  cent  of  the  deaf  are  able  to  read 
the  lips.  Of  those  born  deaf,  28.0  per  cent  have 
this  ability;  of  those  becoming  deaf  after  birth 
and  under  five,  37.1  per  cent;  of  those  becoming 
deaf  after  five  and  under  twenty,  64.3  per  cent; 
and  of  those  becoming  deaf  after  twenty,  43.6  per 
cent.^ 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  87,  240.    For  8,966  no  returns  were  made. 
^On  the  subject  of  lip-reading,  see  especially  E.  B.  Nitchie, 
" Ldp-Reading :  its  Principles  and  Practice",  1912. 


THE  DEAF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES    11 

Means  of  Communication  Employed  by  the  Deaf 

If  the  larger  number  of  the  deaf  do  not  use 
the  speech  which  is  used  by  those  who  can  hear, 
how  is  it  that  their  communication  is  carried  on? 
The  chief  method  is  a  certain  silent  tongue  pe- 
culiar to  the  deaf,  known  as  the  "  sign  lan- 
guage," ^  ^part  of  which  may  be  said  to  be  the 
manual  alphabet,  or  the  system  of  finger-spelling,^ 
the  two  usually  going  hand  in  hand.  In  this  way 
most  of  the  deaf  are  enabled  to  communicate  with 
each  other  readily  and  fluently.  But  this  lan- 
guage, or  at  least  the  greater  part  of  it,  not  being 
known  to  people  generally,  the  deaf  frequently 
have  to  fall  back  on  writing  to  convey  their  ideas 
in  communicating  with  hearing  persons.  This, 
while  slow  and  cumbersome,  is  the  surest  and  most 
reliable  method  of  all.  In  addition,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  certain  number  of  the  deaf  are  able  to  use 
speech,  which  of  course  has  manifold  advantages. 
These  are  the  several  methods,  then,  of  com- 
munication employed  by  the  deaf;  but  they  are 
not  usually  employed  singly,  as  most  of  the  deaf 
are  able  to  use  two  or  more.  According  to  the 
census,^  the  sign  language  alone  or  in  combina- 
tion with  other  methods  is  employed  by  68.2  per 

*  This  "  sign  language "  is  referred  to  at  somewhat  more 
length  in  Chapter  XIX. 

2  Sometimes  called  "  the  deaf  and  dumb  alphabet ". 

=*  Special  Reports,  pp.  89,  240.  For  2,365  no  returns  were 
made. 


12  THE  DEAF 

cent,  or  over  two-thirds  of  the  deaf ;  finger-spell- 
ing by  52.6  per  cent,  or  over  one-half;  writing  by 
almost  the  same  proportion — 51.9  per  cent;  and 
speech  by  39.8  per  cent,  or  some  two-fifths.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  the  proportions  employ- 
ing the  sign  language,  finger-spelling  and  writ- 
ing, either  singly  or  with  other  methods,  are  really 
somewhat  larger.  In  this  case,  likewise,  we  find 
that  the  lower  the  age  of  becoming  deaf,  the 
smaller  is  the  proportion  of  the  deaf  with  speech, 
which  shows  again  the  connection  of  the  ability 
to  speak  with  the  age  of  the  occurrence  of  deaf- 
ness. Of  those  born  deaf,  speech  alone  or  in  com- 
bination with  other  methods  is  used  by  18.2  per 
cent;  of  those  becoming  deaf  after  birth  and 
under  five,  by  27.4  per  cent;  of  those  becoming 
deaf  after  five  and  under  twenty,  by  75.3  per 
cent;  and  of  those  becoming  deaf  after  twenty, 
by  97.7  per  cent. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  DEAF  AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  OF 
THE  POPULATION 

Increase  in  the  Number  of  the  Deaf  in  Relation  to 
THE  Increase  in  the  General  Population 

ARE  the  deaf  to  be  a  permanent  element  in 
the  constitution  of  the  population?  Are 
they  always  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  life 
of  the  state  and  the  regard  of  society?  Would 
it  not  be  well  to  inquire  whether  or  not  deafness 
may  be  eliminated,  or  at  least  reduced  to  an  ap- 
preciable degree?  These  are  questions  that 
present  themselves  at  the  outset  in  a  considera- 
tion of  the  relation  of  the  deaf  to  society,  and  to 
them  we  now  devote  our  attention. 

Our  first  inquiry  in  the  matter  is  directed  to 
the  question  whether  deafness  as  a  whole  is  in- 
creasing, decreasing  or  remaining  stationary,  in 
relation  to  the  general  population.  To  deter- 
mine this,  we  have  recourse  to  the  census  returns 
of  the  deaf  in  connection  with  those  of  the  gen- 
eral population.  Unfortunately,  however,  com- 
parisons of  the  different  censuses  respecting  the 

13 


14  THE  DEAF 

deaf  are  not  altogether  to  be  depended  upon,  for 
the  reason  that  they  have  not  always  been  taken 
on  the  same  basis,  and  conclusions  from  them 
consequently  have  to  be  accepted  with  qualifica- 
tions. Special  census  returns  of  the  deaf  have 
been  made  since  1830;  but  the  censuses  of  1830- 
1870  purport  to  be  of  the  deaf  and  dumb;  the 
census  of  1880,  of  the  deaf  who  became  deaf 
under  sixteen  years  of  age;  that  of  1890,  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb;  that  of  1900,  of  the  totally  deaf; 
and  that  of  1910,  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  The 
results  thus  obtained  are  in  the  main  analogous, 
but  there  are  a  certain  number  of  cases  included 
on  one  basis  that  would  be  excluded  on  another, 
and  vice  versa} 

Taking  the  statistics  as  they  are,  we  have  the 
following  table,^  which  gives  the  number  of  the 
deaf  as  found  in  the  several  censuses,  according 
to  the  bases  upon  which  they  were  made,  together 
with  the  ratio  per  million  of  population. 

^Moreover,  later  censuses  are  probably  taken  more  thor- 
oughly than  former,  with  a  consequent  discovery  of  a  larger 
number  of  the  deaf;  while  at  the  same  time  greater  care  is 
employed  in  preparing  the  later  censuses,  with  the  more  rigor- 
ous elimination  of  doubtful  cases,  all  in  some  measure,  how- 
ever, tending  to  even  up  the  differences.  On  the  difficulty  of 
making  comparisons  of  the  censuses  of  the  deaf,  see  Special 
Reports,  pp.  66-69;  Annals,  li.,  1906,  p.  487. 

» lUd. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  15 

NUMBER  OF  THE  DEAF  ACCORDING  TO  THE  CENSUSES 
OF  1830-1910 

No.  PER  Mil- 
lion OF 
Year  Number    Population 

1830  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 6,106  475 

1840  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 7,665  449 

1850  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 9,803  423 

1860  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 12,821  408 

1870  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 16,205  420 

1880  (deafness  occurring  under  sixteen).  33,878  675 

1890  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 40,592  648 

1900  (the    totally    deaf) 37,426  492 

1910  (the  deaf  and  dumb) 43,812  476 

From  this  table  there  appears  to  be  a  steady  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  the  deaf  in  relation  to  the 
general  population  from  1830  to  1860,  this  latter 
year  seeming  to  be  the  low  water  mark.  From 
1860  to  1870  there  is  a  slight  increase,  and  from 
1870  to  1880  a  very  large  one,  due  to  some  extent 
to  the  method  of  taking  the  census.  From  1880 
to  1890  there  is  a  certain  decrease,  though  the 
proportion  is  still  very  high.  From  1890  to  1900 
there  is  a  very  considerable  decrease,  probably 
indicating  a  return  to  true  conditions ;  and  a  not 
negligible  decrease  from  1900  to  1910. 

On  the  whole,  with  respect  to  these  statistics, 
probably  the  most  that  we  can  safely  say  is  that 
deafness  is  at  least  not  on  the  increase  relatively 
among  the  population,  while  there  is  a  possibility 
that  at  present  it  is  decreasing.  For  further  de- 
terminations, we  shall  have  to  seek  other  means  of 
inquiry. 


16  THE  DEAF 

The  Adventitiously  Deaf  and  the  Congenitally 

Deaf 

We  may  perhaps  best  approach  the  problem  of 
deafness  as  an  increasing  or  decreasing  phenonie- 
non  in  the  population,  if  we  think  of  the  deaf  as 
composed  of  two  great  classes:  those  adventi- 
tiously deaf,  that  is,  those  who  have  lost  their 
hearing  by  some  disease  or  accident  occurring 
after  birth,  and  those  congenitally  deaf,  that 
is,  those  who  have  never  had  hearing.^  In  regard 
to  the  former  class,  it  follows  that  we  are  largely 
interested  in  the  consideration  of  those  diseases, 
especially  those  of  childhood,  which  may  affect  the 
hearing,  and  in  their  prevention  or  diminution  we 
can  endeavor  to  ascertain  how  far  there  are  pos- 
sibilities of  reducing  the  number  of  the  deaf  of 
this  class.  In  the  latter  case  we  are  called  upon 
to  examine  some  of  the  great  problems  involved 
in  the  study  of  heredity,  especially  in  respect  to 
the  extent  that  the  offspring  is  affected  by  defects 
OP  abnormalities  of  the  parent,  and  to  see  what,  if 
any,  means  are  at  hand  to  alter  conditions  that 
bring  about  this  form  of  deafness.  We  shall  first 
discuss  the  causes  of  adventitious  deafness,  to- 

*  Deafness  has  also  been  divided  into  three  classes:  adven- 
titious deafness,  congenital  or  hereditary  deafness,  and  in- 
fantile or  sporadic  congenital  deafness,  the  last  class  including 
many  cases  where  there  are  other  antecedent  defects,  mental 
or  physical,  or  where  the  deafness  occurred  shortly  after  birth 
with  the  exact  cause  not  definitely  determined.  See  Proceed- 
ings of  International  Otological  Congress,  ix.,  1913,  p.  49; 
Volta  Review,  xiv.,  1912,  p.  348;  xv.,  1913,  p.  209. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  17 

gether  with  the  possibilities  of  its  prevention  and 
the  likelihood  of  its  diminution,  and  then  consider 
the  questions  involved  in  congenital  deafness. 

Adventitious  Deafness  and  its  Causes 

From  three-fifths  to  two-thirds  of  the  cases  of 
deafness  are  caused  adventitiously — by  accident 
or  disease.  To  accidents,  however,  only  a  very- 
small  part  are  due,  probably  less  than  one-fiftieth 
of  the  entire  number.^  Nearly  all  adventitious 
deafness  results  from  some  disease,  either  as  a 
primary  disease  of  the  auditory  organs,  or  as  a 
sequence  or  product  of  some  disease  of  the  system, 
often  one  of  infectious  character,  the  deafness 
thus  constituting  a  secondary  malady  or  ailment. 
The  larger  portion  is  of  the  latter  type,  probably 
less  than  a  fourth  resulting  from  original  ear 
troubles.^  In  either  case  deafness  occurs  usually 
in  infancy  or  childhood,  and  does  its  harm  by 
attacking  the  middle  or  internal  ear. 

From  diseases  of  the  middle  ear  results  over 
one- fourth  (27.2  per  cent,  according  to  the  census) 
of  all  deafness,  and  from  diseases  of  the  internal 
ear,  one-fifth   (20.7  per  cent),  very  little   (0.6 

*Of  the  cases  usually  ascribed  to  accidents,  as  falls,  blows 
and  the  like,  the  probabilities  are  that  a  large  part  are  really 
to  be  attributed  to  some  other  cause.  Deafness  is  not  often 
likely  to  result  from  such  occurrences. 

^  See  Proceedings  of  International  Otological  Congress,  ix., 
1913,  p.  49;  Volta  Revieiv,  xiv.,  1912,  p.  348. 


18  THE  DEAF 

per  cent)  being  caused  by  disorders  of  the 
outer  ear.  Of  the  classified  cases  of  deafness,  ac- 
cording to  the  census,  56.3  per  cent  are  due  to 
diseases  affecting  the  middle  ear,  and  42.7  per 
cent  to  diseases  affecting  the  internal.  Of  dis- 
eases of  the  middle  ear,  72  per  cent  are  of  sup- 
purative character,  often  with  inflammation  or 
abscess,  and  28  per  cent  non-suppurative,  or 
rather  catarrhal  in  character.  Of  diseases  of  the 
internal  ear,  89  per  cent  are  affections  of  the 
nerve,  and  10  per  cent  of  the  labyrinth.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  when  the  affection  is  of  the  internal 
ear,  the  result  is  usually  total  deafness. 

By  specified  diseases,  the  leading  causes  of 
deafness  are  scarlet  fever  (11.1  per  cent),  men- 
ingitis (9.6),  brain  fever  (4.7),  catarrh  (3.6), 
"disease  of  middle  ear"  (3.6),  measles  (2.5), 
typhoid  fever  (2.4),  colds  (1.6),  malarial  fever 
(1.2),  influenza  (0.7),  with  smaller  proportions 
from  diphtheria,  pneumonia,  whooping  cough,  la 
grippe,  and  other  diseases.  A  large  part  of  deaf- 
ness is  seen  to  be  due  to  infectious  diseases,  the 
probabihties  being  that  fully  one-third  is  to  be 
so  ascribed,  with  one-fifth  from  infectious  fevers 
alone. 

After  birth  and  under  two  years  of  age,  the 
chief  causes  of  deafness  are  meningitis,  scarlet 
fever,  disease  of  middle  ear,  brain  fever,  and 
measles.   From  two  to   five  scarlet   fever  and 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  19 

meningitis  are  far  in  the  lead,  with  many  cases 
also  from  brain  fever,  disease  of  middle  ear, 
measles,  and  typhoid  fever.  From  five  to  ten 
scarlet  fever  alone  outdistances  all  other  diseases, 
followed  in  order  by  meningitis,  brain  fever  and 
typhoid  fever.  From  ten  to  fifteen  the  main 
causes  are  meningitis,  scarlet  fever,  brain  fever, 
and  catarrh;  from  fifteen  to  twenty  catarrh  and 
meningitis;  from  twenty  to  forty  catarrh,  colds 
and  typhoid  fever ;  and  from  forty  on,  catarrh. 

The  following  table  ^  will  show  in  detail  the 
several  causes  of  deafness  and  their  respective 
percentages. 

CAUSES  OF  DEAFNESS 

Total   classified    48.5 

External    ear    0.6 

Impacted   ceramen    0.2 

Foreign  bodies    0.1 

Miscellaneous    0.3 

^  Special  Reports,  pp.  110,  122,  124.  See  also  Annals,  xxxiii., 
1888,  p.  199 ;  lii.,  1907,  p.  168.  In  the  table  are  given  only  the 
specified  causes  that  represent  at  least  0.7  per  cent  of  the  total 
amount  of  deafness.  In  respect  to  external  ear  trouble,  im- 
pacted ceramen  is  usually  found  to  result  from  water  in  the 
ear,  or  wax  in  the  ear.  Other  diseases  of  the  middle  ear  of 
suppurative  character  are  diphtheria,  pneumonia,  erysipelas, 
.smallpox,  tonsilitis,  teething,  bronchitis,  and  consumption, 
other  non-suppurative  diseases  of  the  middle  ear  are  whooping 
cough,  scrofula,  exposure  and  cold,  disease  of  the  throat, 
thickening  of  eardrum,  croup,  etc.  Of  the  internal  ear,  other 
causes  affecting  the  labyrinth  are  malformation,  noise  and 
concussion,  mumps,  and  syphilis ;  affecting  the  nerve,  paralysis, 
convulsions,  sunstroke,  congestion  of  brain,  and  disease  of 
nervous  system;  and  affecting  brain  center,  hydrocephalus  and 
epilepsy.  Among  unclassified  causes  are  also  adduced  neural- 
gia, childbirth,  accident,  medicine,  heat,  rheumatism,  head- 
ache, fright  or  shock,  overwork,  lightning,  diarrhea,  chicken- 
pox,  operation,  and  other  causes. 


20  THE  DEAF 

Middle   ear    27.2 

Suppurative    19.6 

Scarlet  fever    11.1 

Disease  of  ear   3.6 

Measles     2.5 

Influenza    0.7 

Other  causes   1.7 

Non-suppurative    7.6 

Catarrh   3.6 

Colds    1.6 

Other   causes    2.4 

Internal  ear    20.7 

Labyrinth    1.8 

Malarial  fever    1.2 

Other  causes  0.6 

Nerves     18.5 

Meningitis    9.6 

Brain   fever    4.7 

Typhoid   fever    2.4 

Other  causes  1.8 

Brain  center   0.3 

Miscellaneous    0.1 

Unclassified    45.3 

Congenital    33.7 

Old   age    0.3 

Military    service    1.0 

Falls  and  blows   2.8 

Sickness    2.7 

Fever   2.0 

Hereditary    0.3 

Miscellaneous    2.5 

Unknown    6.2 

In  fairly  approximate  agreement  with  the  re- 
turns of  the  census,  are  the  records  of  the  special 
schools  for  the  deaf  in  respect  to  the  causes  of 
deafness  in  their  pupils,  with  information  also  as 
to  the  amount  from  the  minor  diseases.  The  fol- 
lowing table  will  give  the  causes  by  specific 
diseases,  as  f  oimd  in  one  school,  the  Pennsylvania 
Institution,  for  two  years :  ^ 

*  Proceedings  of  National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Cor- 
rections, 1906,  p.  250 ;  Ceremonies  of  Laying  of  Corner  Stone  of 
Rhode  Island  School,  1907,  p.  27. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT 


21 


CAUSES  OF  DEAFNESS  OF  PUPILS  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 
INSTITUTION 


Total  number    510 

Born  deaf   213 

Scarlet  fever   43 

Meningitis    36 

Falls    24 

Diseases  of  ear  and  throat. . .  13 

Catarrh  and  colds 13 

Measles    18 

Brain  fever  17 

Convulsions    14 

Abscesses    10 

La  grippe   10 

Accidents  (not  stated)    9 

Whooping    cough    7 

Typhoid  fever   7 

Diphtheria    6 

Mumps    5 

Paralysis   5 

Marasmus    2 

Pneumonia    4 

Dentition    

Dropsy  of  blood   2 

Chicken  pox  1 

Poisoning    1 

Intermittent  fever   1 

Blood  clotting  on  brain 1 

Cholera  infantum  1 

Gastric  fever   - 

Sickness  (not  stated)    10 

Unknown   37 


K)6 

1907 

Pbb  Cent 

Pbb  Cent 

100.0 

500 

100.0 

41.8 

206 

41.2 

8.2 

47 

9.4 

7.1 

40 

8.0 

4.7 

25 

5.0 

2.6 

23 

4.6 

2.6 





3.5 

18 

3.6 

3.3 

16 

3.2 

2.8 

13 

2.6 

2.0 

12 

2.4 

2.0 

7 

1.4 

1.8 

7 

1.4 

1.4 

7 

1.4 

1.4 

6 

1.2 

1.2 

6 

1.2 

1.0 

5 

1.0 

1.0 

4 

0.8 

0.4 

4 

0.8 

0.8 

2 

0.4 

— 

2 

0.4 

0.4 

_ 



0.2 

1 

0.2 

0.2 

1 

0.2 

0.2 

1 

0.2 

0.2 

- 

— 

0.2 

_ 

— 

— 

1 

0.2 

2.0 

8 

1.6 

7.3 

38 

7.6 

Possible  Action  for  the  Prevention  of  Adventi- 
tious Deafness 


In  respect  to  present  activities  for  the  preven- 
tion of  adventitious  deafness,  we  find  the  situa- 
tion very  much  like  that  of  marking  time.  Deaf- 
ness, since  the  beginning  of  time,  has  largely  been 
accepted  as  the  portion  of  a  certain  fraction  of 
the  race,  and  any  serious  and  determined  efforts 


22  THE  DEAF 

for  its  eradication  have  been  considered  for  the 
most  part  as  of  little  hope/  With  the  auditory- 
organs  so  securely  hidden  away  in  the  head, 
entrenched  within  the  protecting  temporal  bone, 
and  with  their  structure  so  delicate  and  com- 
plicated, the  problem  may  well  have  been  re- 
garded a  baffling  one  even  for  the  best  labor  of 
medicine  and  surgery.  Hence  it  is  that  after 
deafness  has  once  effected  lodgment  in  the  sys- 
tem, a  cure  has  not  usually  been  regarded  as 
within  reach,  though  for  certain  individual  cases 
there  may  be  medical  examination  and  treatment, 
with  attempts  made  at  relief.  For  deafness  in 
general,  it  has  been  felt  that  there  has  been  little 
that  could  be  done  in  the  way  of  prevention  or 
cure  beyond  the  preservation  of  the  general 
health  and  the  warding  off  of  diseases  that  might 
cause  loss  of  hearing. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  altogether  too 
little  attention  has  been  given  hitherto  to  the 
possibilities  of  the  prevention  of  deafness.  With- 
out question  there  is  much  at  the  outset  that  can 
be  accomplished  towards  the  prevention  of  those 
diseases  that  cause  deafness.  A  large  part,  per- 
haps fully  a  third,  as  we  have  seen,  are  due  to 

*  There  are  no  general  or  organized  movements  on  foot  for 
the  prevention  of  deafness  as  there  are  for  the  prevention  of 
blindness.  This  is  perhaps  chiefly  because  there  are  believed 
to  be  nothing  like  so  many  preventable  cases  of  the  one  as  of 
the  other,  so  much  of  blindness  being  due  to  diseases  that 
might  have  been  avoided  without  great  difficulty,  and  to  acci- 
dents and  other  injuries  to  the  eye. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  23 


» 


infectious  diseases,  and  it  is  probably  here  that 
measures  are  likely  to  be  most  efficacious.  A 
considerable  portion  likewise  are  the  result  of 
diseases  affecting  the  passages  of  the  nose  and 
throat,  and  help  should  be  possible  for  many  of 
these  if  taken  in  hand  soon  enough.  In  certain 
diseases  also,  as  scarlet  fever,  measles,  typhoid 
fever,  diphtheria,  and  others,  there  are  not  a  few 
cases  which,  so  far  as  deafness  as  a  development 
is  concerned,  would  prove  amenable  to  skillful 
and  persistent  treatment.  At  the  same  time  due 
attention  to  primary  ear  troubles  would  in  a  num- 
ber of  instances  keep  off  permanent  deafness. 
Indeed,  it  is  possible  that  some  thirty  or  forty 
per  cent  of  adventitious  deafness  is  preventable 
by  present  known  means.^ 

Aside  from  direct  medical  treatment  for  those 
diseases  that  cause  deafness,  there  are  other 
measures  available  in  a  program  for  the  preven- 
tion of  deafness.  One  of  the  foremost  essentials 
is  the  report  to  the  health  authorities  of  all  serious 
diseases  that  are  liable  to  result  in  deafness. 
In  this  way  proper  medical  care  may  be  se- 
cured, and  due  precautions  may  be  taken  to 
isolate  infectious  cases.  Even  with  meningitis, 
which  is  so  hard  usually  to  deal  with  and  which  is 

*It  has  been  estimated  that  three-fourths  of  deafness  from 
primary  ear  diseases,  and  one-half  from  infectious  diseases,  is 
preventable.  See  Proceedings  of  International  Otological  Con- 
gress, loc.  cit.;  Volta  Review,  xiv.,  1912,  pp.  251,  348. 


24  THE  DEAF 

so  severe  in  its  ravages,  there  is  often  some  con- 
comitant trouble,  and  if  made  notifiable  in  all 
cases  deafness  from  it  might  be  checked  in  no 
inconsiderable  measure.  The  report  of  births  is 
also  especially  needed,  and  as  it  becomes  obliga- 
tory in  general,  with  the  consequent  detection  of 
physical  ailments  or  disabilities,  early  cases  of 
deafness  may  come  increasingly  to  notice,  and 
timely  treatment  may  be  availed  of.  Particular 
attention  is  likewise  necessary  in  respect  to  the 
medical  examination  of  school  children.  The 
proportion  of  such  children  with  impaired  hear- 
ing is  not  slight,  even  though  no  great  part  of 
them  become  totally  deaf.  A  committee  on 
defective  eyes  and  ears  of  school  children  of 
the  National  Educational  Association  in  1903 
found  that  of  57,072  children  examined  in  seven 
cities,  2,067,  or  3.6  per  cent,  were  extremely 
defective  in  hearing.^  An  investigation  of  the 
school  children  in  New  York  City  has  dis- 
closed the  fact  that  one  per  cent  have  seriously 
defective  hearing.^  Under  proper  and  adequate 
medical  inspection  of  schools,  not  only  would  the 
need  of  treatment  for  adenoids  and  similar 
troubles  be  brought  to  light,  with  the  result  that 
a  nimiber  of  incipient  cases  might  be  stopped  in 
time,  but  in  some  instances  of  deafness  already 

*  Proceedings,  1903,  p.  1036. 

» Volta  Review,  xv.,  1913,  p.  136.     See  also  ibid.,  v.,  1903,  p. 
415 ;  Outlook,  civ.,  1913,  p.  997. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  25 

acquired  beneficial  treatment  might  be  possible.^ 
There  is  thus  a  considerable  sphere  for  action 
towards  the  prevention  of  adventitious  deafness 
both  by  legislation  and  by  education.  For  the 
ultimate  solution  of  its  problems,  however,  we 
have  to  look  mainly  to  the  medical  profession. 
In  recent  years  medical  science  has  won  some 
great  triumphs,  and  in  the  field  of  the  preven- 
tion of  deafness  no  little  may  be  in  store  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  years  to  come.^  Even  now, 
with  more  particular  attention  to  the  diseases  of 
children,  and  with  stronger  insistence  upon  gen- 
eral sanitary  measures,  the  probabilities  are  that 
there  is  less  deafness  from  certain  diseases  than 
formerly — a  matter  which  we  are  soon  to  con- 
sider. 

Though  as  yet  there  has  been  little  direct 
action  for  the  prevention  of  adventitious  deaf- 
ness, there  is  an  increasing  concern  in  the  matter, 
and  in  this  there  is  promise.  By  medical  bodies 
in  particular  is  greater  attention  being  given  to 
the  subject,^  and  in  the  widening  recognition 

*See  Medical  and  Surgical  Monitor,  vii.,  1904,  p.  47;  Neio 
York  Medical  Journal,  Ixxxiii.,  1906,  p.  816;  Annals,  Iv.,  1910, 
p.  192;  Volta  Review,  xiii.,  1911,  p.  332. 

^The  possibilities,  for  instance,  in  the  use  of  antitoxins  and 
vaccines  in  certain  diseases  are  just  beginning  to  be  known, 
and  some  results  as  affect  deafness  may  be  expected  from  such 
operations. 

'  In  1909  a  special  committee  in  regard  to  the  prevention  of 
deafness  was  created  by  the  Otological  Section  of  the  Ameri- 
can Medical  Association,  and  in  1910  both  by  the  American 
Laryngologlcal,  Rhinological  and  Otological  Society  and  by  the 


26  THE  DEAF 

of  their  part  as  guardians  of  the  public  health 
it  may  be  possible  for  them  to  do  much  for  the 
enlightemnent  of  the  public.  In  one  state 
legislative  action  has  been  taken  expressly  for 
the  protection  of  the  hearing  of  school  children. 
This  is  Massachusetts,  which  requires  the  ex- 
amination of  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  school  chil- 
dren in  every  town  and  city,  the  state  board  of 
education  furnishing  the  tests.^  In  some  states 
also  general  inspection  of  schools  is  mandatory 
by  statute,  and  in  others  permissive,  while  in 
several  there  are  local  ordinances  with  the  force  of 
a  state  law. 

In  combating  adventitious  deafness,  then,  our 
attack  is  to  be  directed  in  the  largest  part 
upon  those  diseases,  especially  infantile  and 
infectious  diseases,  that  cause  deafness;  and  it  is 
upon  the  checking  of  their  spread  that  our  main 
efforts  for  the  present  have  to  be  concentrated. 
At  the  same  time  the  better  safe-guarding  of  the 
general  health  of  the  community  will  insure  a 
proportionate  diminution  of  deafness.  Beyond 
this,  we  will  have  to  wait  upon  the  developments 
of  medical  science,  both  in  the  study  of  the  pre- 
vention of  diseases  and  of  their  treatment;  and 
can  trust  only  to  what  it  may  off er.^ 

American  Otological  Society.  See  Laryngoscope,  xx.,  1910, 
pp.  596-665;  Yalta  Review,  xii.,  1910,  pp.  267,  545. 

^Laws,  1906,  ch.  502. 

'On  the  possibilities  of  the  prevention  of  adventitious  deaf- 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  27 

Adventitious  Deafness  as  an  Increasing  or  Decreas- 
ing Phenomenon 

Our  main  interest  in  the  problem  of  adventi- 
tious deafness  lies  in  the  possible  discovery 
whether  or  not  it  is  relatively  increasing  or  de- 
creasing among  the  population,  and  in  what 
respects  signs  appear  of  a  diminution.  We  have 
just  seen  the  likelihood  of  a  decrease  from  certain 
causes;  but  we  are  to  find  what  is  indicated  by 
statistical  evidence. 

To  be  considered  first  is  adventitious  deafness 
as  a  whole.  Respecting  it  our  only  statistics  are 
in  the  returns  of  the  censuses  since  1880,  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  deafness  not  being  distinguished 
before  this  time.  The  following  table  will  show 
the  number  of  the  adventitiously  deaf  as  reported 
by  the  censuses  of  1880, 1890  and  1900,  with  their 
respective  percentages  and  ratios  per  million  of 
population.^ 

ness,  see  Dr.  J.  K.  Love,  *•  Deaf -Mutism  ",  1896 ;  Archives  of 
Otology,  xxiv.,  1895,  p.  50 ;  Journal  of  American  Medical  Asso- 
ciation, liii.,  1909,  p.  89;  New  York  Medical  Journal,  1.,  1889, 
p.  205;  Ixxxix.,  1909,  p.  1007;  xcv.,  1912,  p.  1180;  New  York 
State  Journal  of  Medicine,  xii.,  1912,  p.  690ff. ;  Maryland  Medi- 
cal Journal,  Iv.,  1912,  p.  33;  Pediatrics,  xxiv.,  1912,  p.  335; 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  xli#.,  1892,  p.  211 ;  "  Progress  in 
Amelioration  of  Certain  Forms  of  Deafness  and  Impaired 
Hearing,"  Proceedings  of  American  Association  to  Promote 
the  Teaching  cf  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  iv.,  1894;  Annals, 
xxxiv.,  1889,  p.  199 ;  Ivi.,  1911,  p.  211 ;  Iviii.,  1913,  p.  131 ;  Volta 
Review,  xii.,  1910,  p.  143;  xv.,  1913,  p.  303;  New  York  Times, 
April  t),  1913;  Public  School  Health  Bulletin,  Eyes  and  Ears, 
by  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  North  Carolina, 
1910. 

"  Census  Reports,  1880.    Report  on  Defective,  Dependent  and 
Delinquent  Classes  of  the  Population  of  the  United   States, 


28  THE  DEAE 

NUMBER  OF  THE  ADVENTITIOUSLY  DEAF  IN  1800,  1890 
AND  1900 

TOTAIi  ADVBWTITIOnSLX     PbBCSNTAGE  RaTIO 

NUMBXB  DeAT  per  MILLION  0» 

Population 

1880 33.878  10,187  30.1  20.3 

1890 40,563  16,767  41.1  26.8 

1900 37.426  18,164  48.4  23.9 

From  this  it  appears  that  adventitious  deafness 
is  increasing  in  relation  to  total  deafness,  which 
is  most  likely  the  case,  as  congenital  deafness,  as 
we  shall  see,  is  evidently  decreasing.  Whether  or 
not  adventitious  deafness  is  increasing  in  respect 
to  the  general  population,  the  table  does  not  dis- 
close definitely.  The  statistics  probably  are  not 
full  enough  to  afford  any  real  indication  yet. 

Our  next  inquiry  is  in  respect  to  the  increase 
or  decrease  of  adventitious  deafness  from  the 
several  diseases  individually,  which  is,  upon  the 
whole,  the  more  satisfactory  test.  Here  also, 
unfortunately,  our  statistics  are  very  limited,  and 
our  findings  will  have  to  fall  much  short  of  what 
could  be  desired. 

The  following  table,  based  on  the  returns  of 
the  censuses  of  1880, 1890  and  1900,  so  far  as  the 
approximate  identity  of  the  several  diseases  can 
be  established,  will  give  the  respective  per- 
centages found.^ 

1888,  p.  402fe. ;  Census  Reports,  1890.  Report  on  Insane, 
Feeble-minded,  Deaf  and  Dumb  and  Blind,  1895,  pp.  108ff., 
648 ;  Special  Reports,  1906,  p.  122. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  29 

CAUSES    OF    ADVENTITIOUS    DEAFNESS    IN    1880,    1890 
AND  1900 

1880         1890  1900 

Scarlet  fever   7.9  11.8  11.1 

Meningitis     8.4  7.8  9.6 

Catarrh  and  catarrhal   fevers...  0.9  3.3  3.6* 

Diphtheria     0.2  0.5  —^ 

Abscess  and  inflammation    1.0  2.5  — ' 

Measles     13  2.5  2.5 

Whooping   cough     0.5  0.8  — ' 

Malarial  and  typhoid  fevers 1.7  1.8  3.6 

Other   fevers    1.1  —  2.0 

In  this  table  the  most  noticeable  thing  is  perhaps 
the  persistency  with  which  we  find  most  of  the 
diseases  to  recur,  with  apparently  no  great 
change,  while  in  certain  ones,  as  catarrh  and 
malarial  and  typhoid  fevers,  there  seems  to  be 
rather  an  increase.  It  would  be  best,  however, 
not  to  place  very  great  confidence  in  these  figures, 
but,  so  far  as  the  census  reports  are  concerned, 
to  wait  for  more  precise  and  uniform  statistics. 
We  have,  further,  the  statistics  published  in 
the  reports  of  certain  schools  for  the  deaf.  While 
these  are  perhaps  not  of  sufficient  extent  to  war- 
rant full  conclusions,  they  may  be  regarded  as 
quite  representative ;  *  and  though  to  be  taken 
with  something  of  the  caution  as  the  census 
figures,  they  may  serve  to  throw  some  light  upon 

*  Probably  with  the  "fevers"  the  proportion  would  be 
larger. 

^  Less  than  0.7  per  cent. 

^  Probably  included  with  certain  of  the  suppurative  diseases. 

*  Not  a  large  number  of  schools,  it  is  greatly  to  be  regretted, 
give,  regularly  and  over  an  extended  period  of  time,  such  in- 
formation in  statistical  form  and  upon  the  same  basis  from 
year  to  year. 


30  THE  DEAF 

the  situation.  Comparison  of  the  proportions  of 
pupils  deaf  from  the  several  diseases  at  different 
times  may  be  made  in  two  ways:  by  finding  the 
respective  proportions  over  a  series  of  successive 
years  from  a  certain  time  back  down  to  the 
present,  and  by  contrasting  the  proportions  in 
two  widely  separated  periods,  one  in  the  present 
and  one  in  the  past.  These  will  be  taken  up  in 
order. 

The  following  tables  give  the  percentages  of 
cases  of  deafness  in  pupils  from  the  important 
diseases  as  found  in  six  schools  in  successive 
years:  in  the  New  York  Institution  in  the  total 
annual  attendance  from  1899  to  1912;  in  the 
Michigan  School  in  the  total  biennial  attendance 
from  1883  to  1912;  in  the  Pennsylvania  Institu- 
tion in  the  number  of  new  pupils  admitted 
quadriennially  from  1843  to  1912 ;  in  the  Western 
Pennsylvania  Institution  in  the  number  admitted 
biennially  from  1887  to  1912;  in  the  Maryland 
School  in  the  number  admitted  biennially  from 
1884  to  1911 ;  and  in  the  Wisconsin  School  in  the 
number  admitted  biennially  from  1880  to  1908. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT 


31 


212 

OS      to 


^      ^ 


>o6»c 


1C1010&410 

d  d  d  d  00 


<©t^OO'0<N050>OOt^t*»Ot* 

^lOOOOiOOOMO^OOOO 

0 

1 

ooi-iOieo^cO'-i05>coot^>-H»oco 

P^COl^OOO-<J<i-li-iOOO'-lOOO 

i 

i 

Cit^t^i^OTj^cMait^TjHt^rHioi-i 

Tt<»0t>00C0'<t>-i'-iOt-HO'-lO»0 
CO         "-I                                                                    'H 

1 

IS 

»o 

TttOOCC^t^CCOOOOOOOSIN 

■*»OOOQOtO-*.-i,-lr-l.-lOOO-* 

e«3      1— 1                                           i-H 

1 

M«OOOaiQOC003lOO>OST-«05'<l< 

OOU5COOi"5-*T-lrHTH.-(0>-<0»0 

1 

0 

"3 

0005INt-i(Mi-hOOOCOOQO'-iCOOJ 

rH  Tj<  0^  t^  10  ■<*<  rH  i-H  rH  (N  0  rH  0  ^ 

1 

1 

<Niooo5oo^ooocooa>ooot^ 

«OCD^>CeO-*rHl-(TH,-(Ol-lO-* 

i 

i 

rH050i05<NiOlN<NCO<NT»*(NOt^ 

^a5t*iO'*"*THO>-i'-(oo-ico 

1 

i 

<N»OQ0(NaiaiOS«Dt^COC>r-i.-i© 

CO  X>  t- 1^  CO  CO  0  (N  i-l  1-1 0  ■-<  >-"  00 

1 

05rH05,-<iOr-(oa>oooo«o(Noo 

Ot^t^«-*<NTH(NrH.-(.-<Ol-l2 

1 

§ 

ooo5t*eo-*ooo<NTt<o5c;t»<ct* 

O00t^00>CC0>HC0rH.-l.-(O.-H5O 

1 

§ 

1-1  I-H  Tj*  (N  <M  00  CO  Tj*  10  1-H  t^  00     ••<j< 

b- 0  0> OS  t^  CO (N  •<*< -1  (N --( 0     -O 

a> 

g 
■^ 

0-<l<«O^Oi-it^(NW5COOS>01>.r^ 

S 

«Oj-ja)OOS>CiCOCO(N(NrH^^(N 

.  >  »;  » 


oS 


Ills!  iS-s^  :-^-3^s 

Itillilllliill 


050 
050 
00  OS 


OS  OS 

00  00 


»c«o 

OS  OS 
00  00 


OS  OS 

00  00 


00 


t^oo 

00  00 
00  00 


1^4  0000 

tcodd 


rjj^oo  -at 


050 

i 

ooooeotO'<i<eoioooo<oeoo» 

Oo6cO(Nr-Joodw(NTj;d(N<N 

11 

§ 

ts.iO00»0-*T-iCv|0}«O'<*<t^OC0 

^0S»0(Nr-<Tj<OrHO-<*<OC0O 

11 

S 

CDtOOt^COS«COO»OTt<      -iOCO 

dooddr^wddcslco    j-^d 

OOCDO 


00  CO 
COi-i 


OS-*  CO 

wdeo 


eOr-tTl4<COS 

CO  CO  d  •-!  ■*' 


)00(M 
ioO(N 


cooeo 


05«0(N  iHUi 

(N  (N  d  "H  .-4 


TfiO 

i«0<N 


(NtJHOS 

codei 


OSt^iNOS-* 

(N  cvi  o  d  d 


CO  >0  t^  CO  ■<l<  OS  <N 
O  TJ4  OS  CO  l-lrH  d 


(N  CO  U5  CO  00  00  (N  OS  ■> 

U3»oosd»-ioo'-l-' 


lOSOS- 
idi-i. 


St^CO 


COCOOSC 

cslddc 


)  OS  CO  00 
<(Ndd 


CO  10 
(NrH 


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00>-(00lOCO. 


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t>^o6(NdT}<coddc«.H 


:3   Sl-S.a-s IS  i. 


32 


THE  DEAF 


coo 

00  QO 


<    2 


00  00 


00  00 


rf<  O »0  CO  i-<  1-H  M  1— ci  •^     -00 


i 

t^O5-«*<«OCi«OC!C5(N(NC0CO 

eCCOt^MMCSKNCO^rHOO 

11 

i 

oO'^<-i>ot^wt»t^»C'i<cqoo 

^O  t^ '^O -H-H  ON  0-<  CO 

11 

a. 

?5 

evicoT}<ist*cq-*»cioooo— <o 

WOOO-^rHTj^eOfNOONCO 

II 

1 

«0  (N  «  TT  00  00  O     -O     •     -co 

^^t^^oo^  :^  :  :S 

si 

oc 
'J* 

OO^OM'^OONOO     -rjifO 

©2»oeoo-*«oe0'-'    -o^J 

eooooo5»oci03os»oi 
is.*-^»deodcoNC>«d< 


TOO        -H 

O 

CM 


>rH    .    -oeo 


h-OO 

0000       CM 


Tjlt^t^fflOO 


»O00  CM 
t^t^  00 
0000   CM 


CM  »-l  rH  t*  CO  1 


0000   ^ 


<-(  CD  CO  1-1  «  to 

cm'  00  OS  •-i  d  d 


t^o  o 
«ot^  o 

00  00 


OO^^Ocot^^*«o^^ 
dd.-<-^.-<dTiJcM'd 


Tj<t^oeot*    -ot^ 
00  d  CM  CO  d   '•  d  d 


oo« 
dd 


•  oot^ 

•CMd 


oooootooo 


cidd 


rlCM 


So.g^g'J:^? 


a-Sf^ 


I'SSort. 


c^l§-n« 


c3  5  o-c-gg  P'a§  ^.2 


iot^ceoooo»^ 
d  CM  d  d  •-<  «* 


oso 


§8 

00  O) 


t^oo 

OCJS 

ocoo 


U50 
OS  OS 

ocoo 


eo-'j* 

OC3S 

00  00 


OS  CO  »-i  00  00  T}<  00 


i-H  CM  t^  CM  .-H  00  ^  00  ■*     •■<<< 

dodeoo6-*CMTj<'cM^    -r-I 


t  00  CM  OS  00  ^  »  OS 
!  .-I  d  rH  CO  lO  •-<  l-l 


CMeocMCM^*^^oooooo 


O000t*t*eMCMi-n-l.-l 


©  CM  .-I  T}<  CO  00 


oooo 
d  ■**  ci  CM 


oooo< 
d'*'cicM< 


oo    -ouiia 


IC^CMOO 

)  d  d  •"J*  CM 


•OO 

•dcM 


l^T}*Tj<05  0S 


CMOOOi-li 


t^OOOCMCOOSCMOSCS 


)00COU3t^i-iU)<-ii-l 


CO-*«COS     --^Ci 


lOCOOSCMO     -COCO 

'dd-«j<eod    -.-Jt-i 


d^-' 


r  o 

>^  ^n  ©-a 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT 


33 


3    22 


00  05 
00  00 


0>0i 
00  00 


00  00 


2  S 


<Neo 

OiOJ 
00  00 


00  00 
OOOi 


QO»-<Tj<Nt«.     •NtJ<NONi-I 


eoeoocofC    -t^ 
ec  codec  CO 


(N  iH  C>«  CS1(N  rM 


(N     -NTllTtiOi 


-^TjJcOCO     -CO     -Mb^l 


U50CS 


•<0(N 


CO  t^  t^  t^  CO  CO 
co<oo®coeo 


coco 
eo'd 


■coco  CO 
"CO  CO  CO 


oseo 
t>^d 


•CO  CO  CO 


■*'o6<N* 


dddco 


iO»OCO 

coco  ■^ 


coo 
00  odd 


i   ... 

i  111 

Lj     <u  a  oj-S  ^2  M  2  o  K  (- S  « 


ot*«co'<}<oO'^ooeoh- 

dlOOO-^iMNr-lNTpQO 


»oco 
oo 

05  0i 


O5CO»O«OC^«O<N(N00t>» 
Tj<?DOS>-lC0rHCOC0Tt<'H 


oo 

CTOi 


34  THE  DEAF 

We  may  take  these  tables  together  to  see  how 
the  proportions  of  deafness  from  the  leading  dis- 
eases have  changed  in  the  course  of  the  several 
periods  indicated,  proper  allowance  being  made 
for  the  shorter  length  of  time  covered  in  some 
schools  than  in  others.  In  respect  to  scarlet  fever, 
one  of  the  two  foremost  causes,  we  find  in  the 
New  York  Institution,  the  Michigan  School  and 
the  Maryland  School,  a  distinct  and  steady  de- 
cline ;  in  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  a  decline  of 
late  years,  which  is  especially  significant  in  view 
of  the  extended  period  covered  by  it;  and  in  the 
Western  Pennsylvania  and  the  Wisconsin  School 
little  change,  though  in  the  latter  there  is 
less  than  at  the  beginning.  In  meningitis,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  second  of  the  two  most  im- 
portant causes,  a  marked  increase  is  seen  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  entire  period, 
while  in  the  New  York  a  sharp  increase  is 
found  in  the  time  designated,  this  being  all  the 
more  noticeable  because  of  the  large  proportion 
already  attributed  here  to  convulsions,  often  a 
trouble  of  kindred  origin.  In  the  Western  Penn- 
sylvania Institution  and  the  Maryland  School 
little  change  is  observed,  though  in  the  latter  some 
decline  is  apparent  in  the  later  years.  In  the 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan  schools  a  very  strong 
decline  is  seen.  On  somewhat  the  same  order  as 
meningitis  is  brain  fever.  It,  however,  shows  little 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  35 

change  on  the  whole,  though  in  the  Michigan  and 
Maryland  schools  and  the  New  York  Institution 
some  decline  is  evident.  Of  the  remaining  dis- 
eases none  plays  singly  a  large  part  in  the  causa- 
tion of  deafness,  and  in  most  of  them  the  results 
are  similar.  Measles,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria, 
pneumonia,  and  whooping  cough  show,  with  some 
fluctuations  at  times,  little  change  on  the  whole, 
beyond  certain  local  differences.  In  the  New 
York  Institution  a  decline  is  reported  in  nearly 
all.  In  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  a  rather 
larger  proportion  for  measles  is  seen  in  later  than 
in  earlier  years.  In  the  Michigan  School  an  in- 
crease seems  to  be  the  case  with  whooping  cough, 
but  a  decrease  with  typhoid  fever.  In  catarrh 
the  results  are  not  so  uniform.  In  the  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  institutions  a  decline  is  mani- 
fest, though  in  the  latter  a  larger  proportion  is 
reported  than  at  the  beginning.  In  the  Michigan 
and  Wisconsin  schools  rather  an  increase  is 
noted.  La  grippe  is  only  reported  occasionally 
of  late  years,  and  its  real  effects  cannot  yet  be 
ascertained.  With  respect  to  general  fevers, 
their  classification  is  found  to  be  so  varying  that 
little  can  be  determined. 

We  now  proceed  to  make  comparison  of  the 
proportions  of  deafness  from  the  principal  dis- 
eases in  a  series  of  years  some  time  past  with 
similar  proportions  in  recent  years.    The  follow- 


36  THE  DEAF 

ing  tables  give  the  several  proportions  in  the 
American  School  (Connecticut)  in  the  entire 
attendance  from  1817  to  1844  and  from  1817 
to  1857,  and  in  the  new  admissions  from  1901  to 
1913;  in  the  Ohio  School  in  the  entire  attendance 
from  1829  to  1872,  and  in  the  average  annual 
attendance  in  1904,  1905,  1906,  and  1911;  in  the 
Iowa  School  in  the  entire  attendance  from  1855 
to  1870  and  from  1855  to  1912;  and  in  the  New 
York  Institution  in  the  entire  attendance  from 
1818  to  1853  and  in  the  average  annual  atten- 
dance from  1899  to  1912;' 

^  These  tables  are  based  upon  statistics  given  in  the  reports 
of  the  schools,  and  given  in  Annals,  vi.,  1854,  p.  237;  xv., 
1870,  p.  113;  xvii.,  1872,  p.  167. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT 


37 


^2 


},H 


«3     og^g'«»^'<«; 


S?l5S 


O     o 

12 

jS 

0  1857,  J 

PNEU- 
MONIA 

H  1817  T 

BRAIN 
FEVER 

:U3 

o    i    w 

O  !5  ta        ,.;  r^  rH 
t;j        HMO 

00      ^      o 


55      -< 

^1     f;^5 


^Si3 


WOOO* 


>-    2 


05        t3^  O 


g 

i 

t; 

o 

p:1 

2 

S 

00      a 


O 

o 

R 

M 

H 
m 

;? 

M 
O 

I 


C3S 


8g2      -co 


g    oo  a 
g  2 


QQ 

os^ 

^ 

11  eo 

^ 

P 

s« 

Oh 

1 

2 

H 

is 


S  8 


"a      ^  : 


38  THE  DEAF 

Taking  these  tables  also  collectively,  we  find 
in  respect  to  scarlet  fever  a  decline  in  all  the 
schools,  this  being  especially  pronounced  in  the 
case  of  the  Ohio.  In  meningitis,  however,  there 
is  an  increase  so  heavy  as  to  call  in  question  the 
accuracy  of  the  earlier  records ;  and  it  is  possible 
that  it  failed  to  be  entirely  recognized  then.  In 
most  of  the  other  diseases,  as  in  the  previous  case, 
no  very  great  change  is  perceptible.  In  general 
fevers  a  decline  is  apparent  in  all,  in  most  being 
considerable;  and  probably  several  diseases  were 
formerly  included  which  are  now  listed  separ- 
ately. In  measles  rather  a  decline  is  found  in 
the  American  and  Ohio  schools,  but  a  slight  in- 
crease in  the  Iowa,  and  a  somewhat  larger  one  in 
the  New  York  Institution.  In  typhoid  fever 
there  is  a  slight  increase  also  in  the  Iowa  School, 
but  a  decrease  in  the  Ohio.  In  brain  fever  a 
considerable  increase  is  observed  in  the  Iowa 
School,  but  a  slight  decrease  likewise  in  the  Ohio. 
In  whooping  cough  there  is  an  increase  in  the 
New  York  Institution  and  the  Iowa  School,  but 
a  decrease  in  the  American.  Such  diseases  as 
pneumonia,  diphtheria  and  catarrh  seem  not 
usually  to  have  been  separately  classified  in  the 
past,  though  in  the  Ohio  School  we  find  diph- 
theria noted,  and  with  somewhat  smaller  propor- 
tions than  in  later  years;  while  in  several  of  the 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  39 

schools  we  find  "  colds  "  given  in  former  times, 
which  may  have  been  in  part  really  catarrh. 

Combining  now  the  results  of  our  two  groups 
of  tables,  we  may  be  able  to  reach  some  conclu- 
sions with  respect  to  the  increase  or  decrease  of 
deafness  from  certain  diseases,  though  on  the 
whole  far  less  definite  than  we  could  wish.  In  the 
first  place,  it  seems  safe  to  affirm  that  deafness 
from  scarlet  fever  is  becoming  relatively  less 
with  the  years;  and  it  is  possible  that  if  it  con- 
tinues its  present  rate  of  decline,  it  will  in  time 
cease  to  be  one  of  the  main  causes  of  deafness. 
On  the  other  hand,  meningitis,  its  great  com- 
panion in  evil,  shows  a  striking  increase  in  com- 
parison with  past  years,  as  a  cause  of  adventitious 
deafness;  while  its  accretion  may  be  traced  as 
well  in  a  series  of  recent  years  in  certain  schools, 
though  not  in  others.  But  how  far  there  is  an 
absolute  increase  in  meningitis  over  the  past,  and 
whether  it  is  tending  at  present  actually  to  in- 
crease, may  be  a  matter  for  question.  In  view  of 
the  possibility  that  the  disease  was  not  sufficiently 
accounted  for  in  the  past,  and  in  the  absence  of 
any  knowledge  to  indicate  a  reason  for  its  less 
prevalence  in  earlier  years,  at  least  not  to  the  ex- 
tent indicated  by  the  statistics,  it  may  be  that  its 
increase  is,  after  all,  more  apparent  than  real. 
The  fact,  moreover,  that  in  the  series  of  recent 
years  a  marked  increase  is  found  in  some  schools, 


40  THE  DEAF 

but  a  marked  decline  in  others,  may  perhaps  be 
taken  to  mean  that  at  present  meningitis  may  be 
on  the  increase  only  in  certain  sections,  depend- 
ing possibly  on  local  conditions.  With  the 
greater  medical  skill  of  to-day,  and  with  a  larger 
proportion  of  children  in  the  schools,  it  may  be 
open  to  considerable  doubt  if  the  movement  of 
this  disease  is  really  one  of  increase,  though  it 
seems  that  we  are  on  the  whole  making  no  great 
headway  against  it. 

As  to  the  minor  diseases  causing  deafness,  our 
statistics  do  not  indicate  just  to  what  extent  and 
in  what  direction  deafness  from  them  is  being 
affected,  and  no  precise  conclusions  can  at 
present  be  set  down.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  with  the  increased  attention  to  children's 
diseases,  as  we  have  noted,  there  is  really  less 
deafness  from  most  of  them  than  formerly.^ 

'  *  Letters  of  inquiry  as  to  whether  or  not  "  total "  deafness 
appeared  to  be  decreasing  were  sent  by  the  writer  to  the  profes- 
sors of  diseases  of  the  ear  of  the  medical  schools  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, Cornell  University,  Harvard  University,  University  of 
Chicago,  Northwestern  University,  University  of  Michigan,  and 
the  Jefferson  Medical  College  of  Philadelphia.  The  opinion  of 
four  of  these  is  that  such  deafness  is  clearly  decreasing;  of 
three  that  little  or  no  decrease  is  apparent ;  while  by  two  no 
opinion  can  be  vouched  yet.  The  greatest  encouragement  is 
found  in  respect  to  treatment  for  middle  ear  affections  and  in- 
fections from  fevers.  By  Dr.  S.  MacCuen  Smith,  of  the  Jeffer- 
son Medical  College,  it  is  believed  that  there  is  a  decrease, 
"  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  not  only  the  general  medical 
profession,  but  the  public  at  large,  are  recognizing  the 
importance  of  having  the  minor  aural  lesions  promptly  and 
properly  cared  for.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  no  longer  possi- 
ble for  children  in  the  public  schools  to  continue  their  studies 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  41 

The  Congenitally  Deaf 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  question  of 
congenital  deafness,  which  comprises  a  Httle  over 
a  third  of  the  total  amount  of  deafness,  we  have 
an  even  more  difficult  problem  on  our  hands,  for 
here  we  are  to  deal  with  some  of  the  great  ques- 
tions of  heredity — though  hereditary  deafness 
and  congenital  deafness  are  not  altogether  one 
and  the  same  thing.^  For  the  purposes  of  our 
inquiry,  let  us  think  of  the  congenitally  deaf  as 
divided  into  three  great  classes  in  respect  to  their 
family  relations:  1.  the  offspring  of  parents  who 
were  cousins;  2.  the  offspring  of  parents  who 
were  themselves  deaf  or  members  of  families  in 
which  there  are  other  deaf  relatives;  and  3.  the 
product  of  families  without  either  consanguinity 
or  antecedent  deafness.  Of  these  three  classes 
the  first  two  only  will  engage  our  attention.  Of 
the  last,  comprising,  according  to  the  census, 

when  suffering  from  diseased  tonsils  and  enlarged  adenoid 
vegetations.  From  this  cause  alone,  many  cases  of  impair- 
ment of  hearing  which  usually  occur  later  in  life  will  be  pre- 
vented in  the  future".  By  Dr.  E.  A.  Crockett,  of  Harvard 
University,  it  is  believed  that,  although  there  is  a  larger 
amount  of  deafness  from  measles,  there  is  less,  not  only  from 
scarlet  fever,  but  also  from  chronic  suppurations,  from  adenoid 
and  throat  troubles  in  general,  and  even  from  meningitis, 
owing  to  the  use  of  serums.  Regarding  his  own  observations, 
within  a  period  of  twenty-five  years  "  the  number  of  extremely 
deaf  persons  and  deaf-mutes  has  very  materially  diminished  ". 
*  Hereditary  deafness  is  sometimes  of  a  kind  that  mani- 
fests itself  some  years  after  birth,  often  with  certain  relatives 
similarly  affected.  This  is  especially  true  of  catarrhal  and 
middle  ear  affections,  though  their  results  may  more  often  be 
partial  rather  than  total  deafness. 


42  THE  DEAF 

nine-twentieths,  or  44.4  per  cent,  of  the  con- 
genitally  deaf,  there  is  not  much  that  we  can  say. 
For  a  great  part  of  it  there  no  doubt  exists  in  the 
parent,  or  perhaps  in  a  more  remote  ancestor, 
some  abnormal  strain,  physical  or  mental,  in  the 
nature  of  disease  or  other  defect.  But  in  respect 
to  such  deafness  we  have  too  little  in  the  way  of 
statistical  data  to  help  us  arrive  at  any  real  deter- 
mination; and  for  it  as  a  whole  we  shall  have  to 
wait  till  we  have  greater  knowledge  of  eugenics 
and  the  laws  of  heredity.^ 

The  Offspring  of  Consanguineous  Marriages 

Not  all  the  deaf  born  of  consanguineous 
marriages  are  congenitally  deaf,  but  as  the 
majority  are  so,  and  as  the  fact  of  the  parents 
being  blood  relatives  is  assumed  to  have  at  least  a 
contributing  influence  in  the  result,  we  may  con- 
sider the  matter  in  this  place.  It  is  in  fact  closely 
connected  with  the  question  of  deaf  relatives  in 
general. 

In  the  census  investigations,^  of  the  number 
who  answered  on  this  point,  2,525,  or  7.4  per 
cent,  have  parents  who  were  cousins.    Of  these 

*In  a  part  of  such  deafness,  and  also  in  a  portion  of  that 
occurring  shortly  after  birth,  the  cause  is  said  to  be  syphilis. 
See  Proceedings  of  International  Otological  Congress,  ix.,  1913, 
p.  49;  Volta  Review,  xiv.,  1912,  p.  348;  xv.,  1913,  p.  209. 

» Special  Reports,  pp.  125,  236.  There  were  3,341  who  failed 
to  answer,  and  if  all  had  made  reply,  our  percentage  would 
probably  be  higher  yet. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  43 

cases,  deafness  occurred  in  87  per  cent  before  the 
fifth  year  of  age,  and  in  60  per  cent  at  birth. 
Of  all  the  deaf  bom  without  hearing,  13.5  per 
cent  are  the  offspring  of  consanguineous  mar- 
riages. The  proportion  of  those  born  deaf  is 
thus  nearly  twice  as  great  when  the  parents  are 
cousins  as  it  is  among  the  whole  class  of  the 
congenitally  deaf;  and  the  proportion  is  also 
nearly  twice  as  great  of  the  offspring  of  con- 
sanguineous marriages  among  the  congenitally 
deaf  as  the  proportion  of  the  deaf  from  such 
marriages  among  the  total  number  of  the  deaf. 
Moreover,  55.0  per  cent  of  the  offspring  of 
cousin-marriages  have  deaf  relatives  of  some 
kind,  and  of  the  congenitally  deaf  from  cousin- 
marriages,  65,6  per  cent  have  deaf  relatives; 
while  the  respective  proportions  when  the 
parents  are  not  cousins  are  25.5  per  cent  and 
40.7  per  cent — in  the  one  case  less  than  half,  and 
in  the  other  two-thirds,  as  great. 

Further  statistics  bear  out  the  findings  of  the 
census.  Dr.  E.  A.  Fay  in  his  "  Marriages  of  the 
Deaf  "  ^ — a  work  we  are  soon  to  notice — finds 
that,  though  consanguineous  marriages  form 
only  about  one  per  cent  of  the  total  number  con- 
sidered, 30.0  per  cent  of  the  children  of  deaf 
parents  who  are  cousins  are  deaf,  and  that  45.1 
per  cent  of  such  marriages  result  in  deaf  off- 

»P.  108. 


44  THE  DEAF 

spring ;  but  that  when  the  parents  are  not  cousins, 
the  respective  proportions  are  8.3  per  cent  and 
9.3  per  cent — only  about  a  fourth  and  a  fifth 
as  great.  In  the  Colorado  School,  out  of  567 
pupils  in  attendance  from  the  beginning  to  1912, 
in  17,  or  3  per  cent,  the  parents  were  related 
before  marriage.  In  the  Kentucky  School,  out 
of  83  pupils  admitted  in  1910  and  1911,  18,  or 
19.3  per  cent,  and  out  of  42  admitted  in  1912 
and  1913,  8,  or  19  per  cent,  were  the  offspring 
of  parents  who  were  cousins.  In  the  Iowa 
School,  out  of  62  admissions  in  1911  and 
1912,  4,  or  6.5  per  cent,  and  in  the  Maryland 
School,  out  of  a  total  attendance  in  1911  of  135, 
13,  or  9.2  per  cent,  had  parents  who  were  cousins.^ 
Consanguineous  marriages,  so  far  as  the  effect 
on  deafness  is  concerned,  are  not  of  relatively  fre- 
quent occurrence.  But  where  they  do  take  place, 
there  is  found  a  decided  connection  between 
them  and  deafness,  the  increased  tendency  thus 
to  transmit  a  physical  abnormality  being  plain. 
How  far,  however,  if  at  all,  such  deafness  is 
to  be  directly  ascribed  to  consanguineous  mar- 
riages, is  a  matter  for  question.    The  main  con- 

*  In  the  Louisiana  School  10  per  cent  of  the  pupils  are  said 
to  have  parents  who  were  blood  relatives ;  in  the  Illinois,  5 
per  cent;  and  in  the  Kansas,  from  5  to  5.5  per  cent.  Re- 
port of  Louisiana  School,  1906,  p.  17.  See  also  Transactions 
of  American  Medical  Association,  xi.,  1858,  pp.  321-425;  Pro- 
ceedings of  Conference  of  Principals,  iii.,  1876,  p.  204;  AnnaU, 
xxU.,  1877,  p.  242, 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  45 

sideration  seems  to  be  that  in  such  marriages 
the  chances  are  at  least  doubled  of  the  offspring 
acquiring  the  characteristics  of  the  parents;  and 
that  in  them  the  liability  is  thus  proportionately 
enhanced  of  transmitting  deafness/ 

The  Deaf  Having  Deaf  Relatives 

We  are  now  to  examine  what  traces  there  may 
be  of  deafness  in  a  family  by  noting  what  propor- 
tion of  the  deaf  have  deaf  relatives,  and  are  to 
attempt  to  see  what  may  be  its  bearings  upon  the 
question  of  heredity.  In  the  census  investiga- 
tions,^ we  find  that  out  of  34,780  deaf  persons 
who  answered,  there  are  10,033,  or  28.8  per  cent, 
who  have  deaf  relatives  of  some  kind,  direct  or 
collateral,  8,170,  or  23.5  per  cent,  having  deaf 
brothers,  sisters  or  ancestors.  In  all  of  these 
we  can  without  difficulty  discover  the  influ- 
ence of  heredity.  In  the  congenitally  deaf  the 
trace  of  a  physical  defect  is  even  more  clearly  in- 
dicated. Of  these  40.1  per  cent  have  deaf 
brothers,  sisters  or  ancestors,  and  46.2  per  cent 
have  also  deaf  uncles,  cousins,  etc.^ 

It  is  thus  evident  that  there  are  certain  fam- 
ilies in  society  deeply  tinged  with  deafness,  that 

^On  this  subject,  see  Francis  Galton.  "Natural  Inher- 
itance", 1889,  p.  132ff.  See  also  G.  B.  L.  Arner,  "Consangu- 
ineous Marriages",  1908,  p.  65ff.;  C.  B.  Davenport,  "Heredity 
in  Relation  to  Eugenics  ",  1911,  p.  124fe. 

'  Special  Reports,  pp.  128,  235,  and  passim. 

» These  proportions  are  further  indicated  in  the  succeeding 
section. 


46  THE  DEAF 

it  sometimes  passes  from  parent  to  child,  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  that  Hke  a  cloud 
it  hangs  over  a  section  of  the  race. 

The  Offspring  of  Deaf  Parents 

All  this  argument  leads  up  to  one  most  per- 
tinent question:  Are  the  statistics  which  we  have 
indicative  that  this  deafness  which  passes  so  re- 
morselessly in  certain  families  will  be  found  all 
the  stronger  in  the  children  of  deaf  parents? 
Have  we  ground  to  believe  or  fear  that  this  deaf- 
ness will  crop  out  far  more  surely  than  in  the 
children  of  parents  not  deaf?  And  can  we  deter- 
mine to  what  extent  possibilities  are  increased  of 
the  offspring  of  deaf  parents  being  likewise  deaf? 

Let  us  now  consider  the  statistics  which  we 
have  in  this  matter,  first  examining  the  results 
of  the  census  investigation.^  Of  the  8,022  mar- 
ried deaf  persons  for  whom  statements  are  made, 
we  find  that  there  are  190  who  have  deaf  off- 
spring, or  2.4  per  cent.  Of  the  4,116  deaf  persons 
who  are  married  to  deaf  persons,  137  have  deaf 
children,  or  3.3  per  cent;  and  of  the  3,906  deaf 
persons  married  to  hearing  persons,  53  have  deaf 
children,  or  1.4  per  cent.  Of  the  married  deaf 
having  deaf  children,  52.5  per  cent  have  deaf  re- 
latives of  some  kind,  and  54.7  per  cent  are  con- 
genitally  deaf,  the  proportion  of  those  having 

» Special  Reports,  p.  135ff. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  47 

deaf  relatives  who  are  also  congenitally  deaf  be- 
ing 66.7  per  cent.  Of  the  deaf  married  to  hear- 
ing partners,  who  have  deaf  children,  26.4  per 
cent  are  congenitally  deaf,  while  50.9  per  cent 
of  the  partners  in  such  marriages  have  deaf  re- 
latives of  some  kind. 

From  the  census  statistics,  then,  it  appears  that 
the  married  deaf  as  a  class  do  not  have  a  large 
proportion  of  deaf  children,  and  that  this 
proportion  is  only  a  little  more  than  twice  as 
great  when  the  deaf  are  married  to  the  deaf  as 
when  they  are  married  to  the  hearing.  It  ap- 
pears also,  however,  that  when  there  are  deaf  rel- 
atives involved  in  either  kind  of  marriages,  or 
when  there  is  congenital  deafness  in  the  deaf 
parent,  the  effect  is  quite  marked  in  the  offspring. 

Besides  the  census  returns,  we  have  the  statis- 
tics presented  in  the  reports  of  certain  schools, 
which  are  found  to  point,  as  far  as  they  go,  to  the 
same  conclusions.  In  the  Kentucky  School,  out 
of  83  pupils  admitted  in  1910  and  1911,  there 
were  none  the  children  of  deaf  parents,  though 
35,  or  30.1  per  cent,  had  deaf  relatives;  and  out  of 
42  admitted  in  1912  and  1913,  there  were  2,  or 
4.8  per  cent,  the  children  of  deaf  parents,  and  12, 
or  28.8  per  cent,  with  deaf  relatives.  In  the  Iowa 
School,  out  of  62  admissions  in  1911  and  1912,  4, 
or  6.5  per  cent,  had  deaf  parents,  and  21,  or  33.9 
per  cent,  "  defective  "  relatives.    In  the  Michigan 


48  THE  DEAF 

School,  with  an  annual  enrollment  of  some  three 
hundred,  there  were  from  1903  to  1908  but  three 
children  of  deaf  parents/  In  the  Colorado 
School,  out  of  a  total  attendance  since  its  found- 
ing to  1912  of  567,  3,  or  0.57  per  cent,  were  the 
children  of  deaf  parents,  though  83,  or  14.6  per 
cent,  had  deaf  relatives.  In  the  Missouri  School, 
out  of  a  similar  attendance  to  1912  of  2,174  there 
were  52,  or  2.4  per  cent,  with  deaf  parents, 
though  there  were  235,  or  10.8  per  cent,  with  deaf 
relatives.^ 

The  most  exhaustive  study  of  the  question  of 
the  liability  of  the  deaf  to  deaf  offspring  is  that 
of  Dr.  E.  A.  Fay  in  his  "  Marriages  of  the  Deaf  " 
— covering  the  majority  of  the  marriages  of  the 
deaf  in  America  at  the  time  it  was  made  (1898)  .^ 
Statistical  information  is  presented  for  7,227 
deaf  persons  and  for  3,078  marriages  with  either 
deaf  or  hearing  partners.*     In  the   following 

^Report,  1908,  p.  31. 

^  Out  of  107  children  born  to  former  pupils  of  the  Minnesota 
School  up  to  1892,  2,  or  1.9  per  cent,  were  deaf.  Report,  1892, 
p.  39.  Out  of  811  children  born  to  former  pupils  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  up  to  1891,  105,  or  12.9  per  cent,  were  deaf.  Re- 
port, 1891,  p.  20. 

'The  study  had  been  originally  planned  by  Dr.  F.  H.  Wines 
for  the  International  Record  of  Charities  and  Corrections. 
See  issue  for  October,  1888.  The  work  was  published  by  the 
Volta  Bureau.  For  a  discussion  of  the  results,  see  Association 
Review,  ii.,  1900,  p.  178;  Publications  of  American  Statistical 
Association,  yi.,  1899,  p.  353;  Biometrika  (London),  iv.,  1904-5, 
p.  465.     See  also  charts  in  current  numbers  of  Volta  Review. 

^  From  the  total  number  of  marriages,  974  were  deducted, 
being  cases  concerning  the  offspring  of  which  no  information 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT 


49 


table  are  summarized  the  results  of  this  investi- 
gation.^ 

MARRIAGES  OF  DEAF  PERSONS 

NTTMBEB  OP  MARBIAQE8  NUMBEK  OP  CHILDnEN 


Partners  in  Marriage 

Total 

Result- 
ing in 
deaf 
children 

Per 

cent 

Total 

Deaf 

Per 
cent 

One  or  both  deaf 

3,078 

2,377 
699 

300 

220 
75 

9.7 

9.2 
12.5 

6,782 

5,072 
1,532 

588 

429 
151 

8.6 

Both  deaf 

8.4 

One  deaf,  other  hearing 

9.8 

One  or  both  congenitally  deaf.. 
One  or  both  adventitiously  deaf 

1,477 
2,212 

194 
124 

13.1 
5.6 

3,401 
4.701 

413 
199 

12.1 
4.2 

Both  congenitally  deaf 

One  congenitally,  other  adven- 
titiously deaf 

335 

814 
845 

83 

66 
30 

24.7 

8.1 
3.5 

779 

1,820 
1,720 

202 

119 
40 

25.9 
6.5 

Both  adventitiously  deaf 

2.3 

One  congenitally  deaf,  other 

191 
310 

28 
10 

14.6 
3.2 

528 
713 

63 
16 

11.9 

One  adventitiously  deaf,  other 
hearing 

2.2 

Both  had  deaf  relatives 

One  had  deaf  relatives.other  not 
Neither  had  deaf  relatives 

437 
541 
471 

103 
36 
11 

23.5 
6.6 
2.3 

1,060 
1,210 
1,044 

222 
78 
13 

20.9 
6.4 
1.2 

Both  congenitally  deaf 

Both  had  deaf  relatives 

One  had  deaf  relatives.other  not 
Neither  had  deaf  relatives 

172 
49 
14 

49 
8 
1 

28.4 

16.3 

7.1 

429 

105 

24 

130 
21 

1 

30.3 

20.0 

4.1 

Both  adventitiously  deaf 

Both  had  deaf  relatives 

One  had  deaf  relatives,  other  not 
Neither  had  deaf  relatives 

57 
167 
284 

10 
7 
2 

17.5 
4.1 
0.7 

114 
357 
650 

11 

10 

2 

9.6 
2.8 
0.3 

Partners  consanguineous 

31 

14 

45.1 

100 

30 

30.0 

It  is  thus  seen  that  9.7  per  cent  of  the  mar- 
riages of  the  deaf  result  in  deaf  offspring,  and 
that  8.6  per  cent  of  the  children  born  of  them  are 
deaf — proportions  far  greater  than  for  the 
the  population  generally.^    A  striking  fact  to  be 

could  be  obtained,  and  also  434  cases  where  there  were  no  off- 
spring. 

^From  p.  134.  It  has  also  been  computed  by  Dr.  Fay  from 
his  data  that  of  5,455  married  deaf  persons,  300,  or  5.5  per 
cent,  have  deaf  offspring.    Annals,  lii.,  1907,  p.  253. 

2  The  proportions  for  the  general  population  are  hardly  over 
0.3  per  cent  and  0.05  per  cent  respectively. 


50  THE  DEAF 

noted,  however,  is  that  these  proportions  are 
greater  when  one  parent  is  deaf  and  the  other 
hearing  than  when  both  are  deaf.  The  per- 
centage of  marriages  resulting  in  deaf  offspring 
when  only  one  parent  is  deaf  is  12.5,  and  when 
both  are  deaf,  9.2;  while  the  percentage  of  deaf 
children  born  of  them  when  only  one  parent  is 
deaf  is  9.8,  and  when  both  are  deaf,  8.4.  This  is 
apparently  a  very  strange  result,  though  it 
probably  may  be  accounted  for  in  some  part  on 
the  theory  that  it  is  not  so  much  deafness  itself 
that  is  inherited,  but  rather  an  abnormality  of  the 
auditory  organs,  or  a  tendency  to  disease,  of 
which  deafness  is  a  result  or  symptom,  and  that 
with  different  pathological  conditions  in  the 
parent  there  is  less  likelihood  of  deafness  result- 
ing. 

The  most  significant  part  of  the  results  seems 
to  be  found,  as  before,  in  respect  to  whether  or  not 
deaf  parents  are  themselves  congenitally  deaf  or 
have  deaf  relatives.  On  the  one  hand,  when  one 
or  both  of  the  parents  are  adventitiously  deaf,  the 
percentage  of  marriages  resulting  in  deaf  chil- 
dren is  5.6,  and  the  percentage  of  deaf  children  is 
4.2 ;  when  both  parents  are  so,  the  percentages  are 
lower:  3.5  and  2.3.  The  percentages  rise  when 
one  parent  is  adventitiously  deaf,  and  the  other 
congenitally:  8.1  and  6.5,  In  respect  to  deaf 
relatives  of  parents,  the  percentages  are  very 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  51 

low  when  neither  has  such  relatives:  2.3  and  1.2. 
The  lowest  percentages  of  all  are  in  the  case 
where  both  parents  are  adventitiously  deaf  and 
neither  has  deaf  relatives:  0.7  and  0.3. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  find  the  proportion  of 
marriages  resulting  in  deaf  offspring  and  the 
proportion  of  deaf  children  much  greater  when 
there  is  congenital  deafness  in  one  or  both  par- 
ents, when  one  or  both  have  deaf  relatives,  and 
greatest  of  all  when  these  influences  are  com- 
bined. When  one  or  both  parents  are  congen- 
itally  deaf,  the  percentage  of  marriages  result- 
ing in  deaf  offspring  is  13.1,  and  the  percentage 
of  deaf  children  is  12.1 ;  when  both  parents  are 
so,  the  percentages  are  doubled:  24.7  and  25.9. 
When  one  parent  has  deaf  relatives  and  the  other 
has  not,  the  percentages  are  6.6  and  6.4;  when 
both  have,  the  percentages  are  nearly  four  times 
as  great:  23.5  and  20.9.  When  both  parents 
are  congenitally  deaf  but  neither  has  deaf  rela- 
tives, the  percentages  are  7.1  and  4.1.  When 
both  are  adventitiously  deaf  and  both  have  deaf 
relatives,  the  percentages  are  17.5  and  9.6. 
When  both  are  congenitally  deaf  and  one  has 
deaf  relatives,  the  percentages  are  16.3  and  20.0; 
and  when  both  have  deaf  relatives,  the  percen- 
tages are  28.4  and  30.3. 

The  evidence  is  very  strong,  then,  with  regard 
to  the  form  of  deafness  and  the  presence  or  ab- 


52  THE  DEAF 

sence  of  deaf  relatives.  In  cases  where  the  par- 
ents are  not  eongenitally  deaf  and  have  no  deaf 
relatives,  the  proportion  of  deaf  children  is  very 
low.  When  one  or  both  parents  are  eongenitally 
deaf  or  have  deaf  relatives — when  the  deafness 
is  inherited  or  in  the  family — the  likelihood  be- 
comes far  greater,  and  greater  still  when  the  two 
influences  are  in  con j  miction.  In  general,  in  re- 
spect to  the  influences  of  heredity  upon  deafness, 
the  main  determinants  seem  to  be  found  in  the 
existence  in  the  parties,  whether  hearing  or  deaf, 
of  deaf  relatives,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  the  ex- 
istence in  parties  who  are  deaf  of  congenital 
deafness. 

Possible  Action  fob  the  Prevention  of  Congenital 
Deafness 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  ques- 
tion of  possible  action  for  the  prevention  of  con- 
genital deafness.  This  examination  naturally 
centers  about  the  matter  of  the  regulation  of  mar- 
riage, with  due  attention  to  the  extent  that  action 
on  the  part  of  the  state  is  to  be  regarded  as 
desirable  or  feasible. 

We  have  seen  that  congenital  deafness  may, 
hypothetically,  be  divided  into  three  distinguish- 
able classes:  that  in  which  consanguineous  mar- 
riages are  concerned,  that  in  which  there  is 
antecedent  deafness  in  the  family,  and  that  in 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  53 

which  neither  of  these  conditions  occurs;  and  in 
our  inquiry  it  has  seemed  best  to  take  up  each  of 
these  separately.  It  may  be,  however,  that  there 
is  in  fact  no  very  radical  difference  between  these 
several  forms,  and  that  with  increased  knowledge 
on  the  subject  a  more  or  less  intimate  relation 
will  be  found  to  exist. 

Of  that  form  of  deafness  in  which  neither  con- 
sanguineous marriages  nor  antecedent  deafness 
is  involved,  we  are  at  present,  as  we  have  noted, 
able  to  say  little  definitely.  In  most  cases  we  may 
be  convinced  that  there  exists  in  the  parent  some 
peculiar  state  of  morbidity  or  other  affection, 
latent  or  manifest,  perhaps  to  some  extent  of 
hereditary  influence,  which  has  an  effect  on  the 
organs  of  hearing  of  the  offspring.  A  certain 
proportion  is  quite  possibly  due  to  recognizable 
defects  both  of  physical  and  mental  character. 
Our  statistical  evidence,  however,  in  respect  to 
this  form  of  congenital  deafness  is  too  slight  to 
warrant  any  positive  deductions;  and  we  will 
have  to  wait  for  further  investigation  to  deter- 
mine its  nature  fully.  None  the  less,  marriage  of 
persons  known  to  be  liable  to  have  ill  effect  on 
possible  offspring  is  objectionable  for  not  a  few 
reasons,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  interests  of 
society ;  and  in  their  reduction  there  will  probably 
be  a  greater  or  less  diminution  of  congenital  deaf- 
ness. 


54  THE  DEAF 

With  regard  to  consanguineous  marriages  and 
their  effect  on  deafness  we  are  on  surer  ground, 
so  far  as  may  be  indicated  by  statistical  data. 
This  question  is  found  in  very  great  measure  to  be 
connected  with  that  of  deaf  relatives  in  general. 
The  matter  appears  to  be  largely  a  part  of  a  law 
of  wide  application,  namely,  that  in  the  blood 
relationship  of  parents  the  possibilities  are 
intensified  of  the  perpetuation  of  a  certain  strain, 
which  holds  true  no  less  with  the  transmission  of 
deafness.  Consanguineous  marriages  are  per- 
haps not  of  sufficiently  frequent  occurrence,  so 
far  as  concerns  the  effect  on  deafness,  to 
require  special  action ;  but  in  the  consideration  of 
such  marriages  in  general,  their  part  in  the 
causation  of  deafness  should  have  due  weight; 
and  whatever  may  be  said  regarding  them  in 
other  relations,  they  are  to  be  avoided  if  we  wish 
to  remove  all  chances  of  this  kind  of  deafness 
resulting. 

The  problem  of  deaf  relatives  and  their  con- 
nection with  congenital  deafness  is  a  very  large 
one.  Attention  however,  has  mostly  been  fo- 
cused upon  it  in  relation  to  the  intermarriage  of 
the  deaf  and  its  effect  upon  their  offspring.  In- 
deed, in  such  unions  there  has  already  been  more 
or  less  concern,  and  there  has  even  been  question 
whether  it  is  a  wise  or  unwise  policy  to  allow  the 
deaf  to  marry  other  deaf  persons.    The  deaf,  as 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  55 

we  shall  discover,  not  only  find  their  companions 
for  social  intercourse  among  similar  deaf  persons, 
but  a  fortiori  very  often  seek  such  persons  for 
their  partners  in  marriage — in  fact,  more  often 
than  they  do  hearing  partners,  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  married  deaf  being  married  to  deaf 
partners.^  Not  only  has  it  been  feared  that  the 
offspring  of  such  marriages  might  likewise  be 
deaf,  but  there  has  also  been  apprehension  lest  in 
their  encouragement  there  might  result  a  deaf 
species  of  the  race.^ 

From  our  discussion,  however,  we  have  found 
that  in  most  of  the  marriages  of  the  deaf  we  have 
but  small  reason  for  disquiet.  If  deafness  in  the 
parent  is  really  adventitious,  there  is  little  pos- 
sibility of  its  passing  on  to  the  offspring.    When 

*The  proportion  of  the  married  deaf  who  are  married  to 
deaf  partners  is  found  by  Dr.  Fay  to  be  72.5  per  cent,  and  of 
those  married  to  hearing  partners,  20  per  cent,  there  being  no 
information  for  the  remaining  7.5  per  cent.  The  census  re- 
turns, however,  give  the  respective  proportions  as  51.3  per 
cent  and  48.7  per  cent. 

^  See  Proceedings  of  National  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Corrections,  1879,  p.  214;  A.  G.  Bell,  "The  Formation  of  a 
Deaf  Variety  of  the  Human  Race",  Memoirs,  1883,  ii,  part  4, 
p.  177 ;  Proceedings  of  Conference  of  Principals,  i.,  1868,  p.  91 ; 
v.,  1884,  p.  205;  A.  G.  Bell,  "Marriage,  an  Address  to  the 
Deaf",  1898;  Evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission  on  the 
Deaf,  etc.,  1892,  ii.,  pp.  74-129 ;  Annals,  xxix.,  1884,  pp.  32,  72 ; 
XXX.,  1885,  p.  155;  xxxiii.,  1888,  pp.  37,  206;  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  xvii.,  1885,  p.  15;  Science,  Aug.,  1890,  to  March,  1891 
(xvi.,  xvii.)  ;  Arena,  xii.,  1895,  p.  130;  Association  Review,  x., 
1908,  p.  166;  Volta  Review,  xiv.,  1912,  p.  184;  Proceedings  of 
Reunion  of  Alumni  of  Wisconsin  School  for  the  Deaf,  vi., 
1891,  p.  46 ;  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  iv.,  1893,  p.  112 ; 
ix.,  1910,  p.  69;  Report  of  Board  of  Charities  of  New  York, 
1911,  L,  p.  150. 


56  THE  DEAF 

the  deafness  in  the  parent  is  itself  congenital,  the 
situation  becomes  more  serious.  If  in  such  case 
there  is  no  added  risk  from  the  existence  of  deaf 
relatives,  the  likelihood  of  transmitting  deafness 
need  not  always  be  a  matter  of  deep  concern, 
though  the  hazard  is  materially  larger  than  for 
adventitious  deafness.  When  there  are  deaf  rela- 
tives involved,  the  peril,  made  stronger  if  coupled 
with  congenital  deafness,  is  most  pronounced; 
and,  indeed,  the  existence  of  collateral  deafness 
seems  a  more  certain  sign  of  warning  than  direct 
heredity  itself.  Finally,  even  in  the  marriage  of 
the  deaf  with  the  hearing,  the  dangers  are  not  in 
fact  lessened  if  conditions  otherwise  unchanged 
are  attendant. 

What  action  should  be  taken  in  respect  to  that 
part  of  the  deaf  who  may  marry  under  conditions 
favorable  to  the  production  of  deaf  offspring  is 
not  at  present  clear.  Legislation  would  not  ap- 
pear on  the  whole  to  be  advisable ;  ^  and  the  exer- 
tion of  moral  suasion,  so  far  as  possible,  in  the 
individual  cases  concerned  would  seem  a  more 
acceptable  course.  The  matter,  however,  really 
belongs  in  the  province  of  eugenics,  and  we  will 
probably  do  best  to  await  the  authoritative  pro- 

*No  statutory  action  seems  ever  to  have  been  taken  in  the 
matter.  In  Connecticut,  however,  in  1895  when  a  law  (Laws, 
ch.  325)  was  enacted  forbidding  the  marriage  of  the  feeble- 
minded and  epileptic,  a  provision  respecting  the  congenitally 
deaf  and  blind  came  near  being  included.  Annals,  xl.,  1895, 
p.  310. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  57 

nouncement  of  its  decrees  before  full  procedure  is 
resolved  upon. 

Congenital  Deafness  as  an  Increasing  oe  Decreas- 
ing Phenomenon 

The  final  matter  to  be  ascertained  in  respect  to 
congenital  deafness  is  whether  it  is  relatively  in- 
creasing or  decreasing.  The  following  table 
will  show  the  number  of  the  congenitally  deaf  in 
the  censuses  of  1880,  1890,  and  1900,  with  their 
respective  percentages  and  the  ratios  per  million 
of  population.^ 

» Census  Reports,  1880.  Report  on  Defective,  Dependent 
and  Delinquent  Classes  of  the  Population  of  the  United  States, 
1888,  p.  402fC. ;  Census  Reports,  1890,  Report  on  Insane,  Feeble- 
minded. Deaf  and  Dumb  and  Blind,  1895,  pp.  108ff.,  684; 
Special  Reports,  1906,  p.  122.  The  ages  of  the  deaf  were  re- 
ported less  fully  in  1880  than  in  1890,  and  less  fully  in  1890 
,  than  in  1900;  and  if  we  take  the  numbers  of  those  whose 
ages  were  reported  in  these  three  censuses,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing table,  showing  the  proportion  of  the  congenitally  deaf. 

THE  CONGENITALLY  DEAF  ACCORDING  TO  NUMBERS  IN  WHICH 
AGE  WAS  REPORTED 

Whose  Age  Congenitally  Per 

Was  Reported  Deaf  Cent 

1880 22,473  12.155  54.7 

1890 37,204  16,866  45.8 

1900 35.479  12,609  35-3 

If  we  assume  that  the  proportion  of  the  congenitally  deaf  to 
all  the  deaf  in  each  census  was  the  same  that  it  was  among 
the  cases  in  which  the  age  of  the  occurrence  of  deafness  was 
reported,  we  have  this  table  to  show  the  number  of  the  con- 
genitally deaf  and  the  ratio  of  the  deaf  among  the  popula* 
tion. 

THE  CONGENITALLY  DEAF  ACCORDING  TO  NUMBERS  ASSUMED 

Assumed 
Number  op  Ratio  Per 

Congenitally  Million  op 

Deaf  Population 

1880 18.531  369 

1890 18,375  293 

1900 13.286  175 

These  tables  are  taken  from  Annals,  li.,  1906,  p.  487. 


58  THE  DEAF 

NUMBER  OF  THE  CONGENITALLY  DEAF  IN  1880,  1890, 
AND  1900 

Ratio  pbb 

Total  Congkn^itallt  Per     Million  of 

Nttmbeb  Deaf  Cent  Population 

1880 33,878  12,155  35.6  242 

1890 40,562  16,866  41.2  269 

1900 37,426  12,609  33.7  166 

From  this  it  appears  that  congenital  deafness  is 
decreasing  both  in  relation  to  all  deafness,  and  to 
the  general  population. 

For  further  statistics,  we  may  revert  to  our 
tables  under  adventitious  deafness.  In  the  tables 
relating  to  periods  of  successive  recent  years  we 
find  in  respect  to  three  schools,  the  New  York 
and  Western  Pennsylvania  institutions  and  the 
Maryland  School,  with  certain  fluctuations,  no 
great  change  on  the  whole,  though  the  last  named 
school  shows  still  a  very  high  proportion.  In  two 
schools,  the  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  rather  an 
increase  is  observed.  In  the  Pennsylvania  In- 
stitution, which  covers  a  period  of  seventy  years, 
there  is  a  decrease  from  over  50  per  cent  to  less 
than  40. 

A  better  test  perhaps  lies  in  the  comparison  of 
the  proportions  found  for  congenital  deafness  in 
the  tables  relating  to  periods  widely  separated  in 
time.  In  these  an  increase  is  seen  in  the  single 
case  of  the  Ohio  School;  while  a  decrease  is 
apparent  in  three,  namely,  the  American  and 
Iowa  schools  and  the  New  York  Institution. 
These  decreases  in  percentages  are  respectively 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  59 

from  44.8  and  50.1  to  35.2;  from  37.2  to  26.9; 
and  from  42.9  to  38.0.^ 

From  the  evidence  that  we  have,  then,  taken 
together,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that  con- 
genital deafness  is,  though  slowly,  becoming  less 
in  the  course  of  the  years. 

Conclusions  with  Respect  to  the  Elimination  or 
Prevention  of  Deafness 

Most  of  what  has  been  said  in  this  chapter  with 
respect  to  the  elimination  or  prevention  of  deaf- 
ness may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  There  are  two  kinds  of  deafness — adventi- 
tious and  congenital.  Of  the  total  number  of 
cases  adventitious  deafness  comprises  nearly  two- 
thirds,  and  congenital  deafness  a  little  over  one- 
third. 

2.  Nearly  all  adventitious  deafness  is  caused 
by  some  disease  of  infancy  or  childhood  attacking 
the  middle  or  internal  ear,  a  large  part  being  of 
infectious  character.  The  two  chief  diseases 
causing  such  deafness  are  scarlet  fever  and  men- 
ingitis, with  a  less  amount  from  brain  fever,  ty- 

*  In  the  three  schools  where  an  increase  in  congenital  deaf- 
ness appears  to  be  found,  namely,  those  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin 
and  Ohio,  a  partial  explanation  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that 
in  these  states  a  number  of  day  schools  have  been  created  of 
late  years,  which  are  not  likely  to  draw  congenitally  deaf 
pupils  to  the  extent  that  the  institutions  do,  thus  leaving  a 
larger  proportion  for  the  latter.  See  also  E.  A.  Fay,  op.  cit.,  p. 
125. 


60  THE  DEAE 

phoid  fever,  measles,  catarrh,  diphtheria,  whoop- 
ing cough,  etc. 

A  considerable  part  of  this  deafness  is  pre- 
L?^le  under  enlightened  action.  Medical  sci- 
«^nc6  is  principally  in  control  of  the  situation,  but 
tkere  is  also  much  that  can  be  done  in  general 
measures  for  the  protection  of  the  health.  In 
attacking  the  problem,  the  most  immediate 
practical  program  lies  in  the  arrest  of  those 
diseases,  especially  infantile  and  infectious  dis- 
eases, that  cause  deafness. 

4.  Our  evidence  is  incomplete  to  determine 
definitely  whether  adventitious  deafness  is  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  relatively  among  the  popu- 
lation ;  but  it  is  hardly  other  than  likely  that  it  is 
decreasing.  Although  certain  diseases  producing 
deafness  fail  to  show  any  extensive  signs  of  abate- 
ment, there  are  other  diseases  from  which  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  deafness  is  decreasing. 

5.  In  the  outlook  there  is,  on  the  whole,  prom- 
ise, both  in  respect  to  the  treatment  of  deafness 
itself  and  of  the  diseases  that  lead  to  deafness, 
though  it  cannot  be  said  in  any  sense  that  any 
large  or  general  relief  is  at  present  in  sight. 

6.  Of  congenital  deafness  nearly  half  occurs 
in  families  often  without  any  positively  known 
strain  to  indicate  a  predisposition  to  deafness. 
Though  concerning  this  deafness  little  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  can  be  predicated. 


AS  A  PERMANENT  ELEMENT  61 

it  is  likely  that  with  measures  to  secure  a  race 
sound  in  all  particulars  there  will  be  a  reduction 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  such  deafness^ '     ,* 

7.  Consanguineous  marriages  do  not  tal^ 
place,  so  far  as  deafness  as  an  effect  is  concerned^ 
to  any  great  extent;  though  where  they  do  the 
consequences  are  very  marked.  Their  relation  to 
deafness  consists  apparently  for  the  greatest  part 
in  the  fact  that  the  chances  of  its  transmission 
are  thereby  intensified,  there  being  also  a  very 
strong  connection  with  the  question  of  deaf  rel- 
atives in  general. 

8.  There  are  a  certain  number  of  families  in 
society  deeply  tainted  with  deafness,  in  evidence 
both  lineally  and  collaterally,  and  this  deafness 
may  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring. 

9.  Children  of  deaf  parents  are  far  more  likely 
to  be   deaf  than  children   of  hearing  parents. 

10.  The^reatmajority  of  the  children  of  dea£^^ 
parents,  however,  are  able  to  hear,  the  proportioi| 
of  those  who  are  not  being  small. 

11.  The  likelihood  of  deaf  offspring  is  not    ^^ 
necessarily  greater  when  both  parents  are  deaf 
than  when  one  is  deaf  and  the  other  hearing. 

12.  The  liability  to  deaf  offspring  depends  in 
the  greatest  degree  upon  the  presence  or  absence 
in  the  parents,  deaf  or  hearing,  of  deaf  relatives, 
and,  to  a  less  extent,  upon  whether  or  not  the  . 
existing  deafness  is  congenital — being  especially 


62  THE  DEAF 

great  under  a  combination  of  these  two  condi- 
tions. 

13.  Action  in  respect  to  marriages  of  the  deaf 
likely  to  result  in  deaf  offspring  seems  for  the 
present  rather  to  be  limited  to  moral  forces. 

14.  Congenital  deafness  appears,  from  all  the 
evidence,  to  be  decreasing  relatively  among  the 
population,  though  probably  only  at  a  very  slow 
rate. 

15.  Finally,  with  respect  to  our  original  in- 
quiry, it  is  to  be  said  that  there  are  no  indications 
that  deafness  will  disappear  from  the  human 
race  within  any  time  which  we  can  measure ;  and 
hence  that  the  deaf  are  to  be  in  society  not 
only  for  a  season,  but  for  a  period  apparently  as 
yet  indefinite.  Nevertheless  the  situation  is  not 
without  encouragement.  From  the  data  in  our 
possession  regarding  deafness  as  a  whole,  it  seems 
certain  that  deafness  is  not  on  the  increase  rel- 
atively among  the  population.  From  our  knowl- 
edge concerning  adventitious  deafness,  the  prob- 
abilities are  that,  if  anything,  it  is  decreasing; 
while  the  evidence  as  to  congenital  deafness  is  that 
it  is  decreasing.  It  is  likely,  then,  that  deafness  in 
general  is  tending  to  decrease;  and  we  are  thus 
justified  in  believing  that  the  number  of  the  deaf 
will  in  time  become  less. 


CHAPTER  III 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAF  BY  THE  STATE 

General  Attitude  of  the  Law  towards  the  Deaf 

AFTER  examination  of  the  question  of  how 
long  the  deaf  are  to  be  an  element  of  the 
population,  our  discussion  turns  to  their 
position  at  present  as  an  actual  part  of  society. 
The  first  relation  to  be  considered  is  that  of  the 
state  to  them. 

The  state  acts  on  men  through  the  law,  and  in 
the  law  is  represented  not  only  its  authority,  but 
its  attitude  as  well  towards  the  problems  that 
confront  society,  including  the  treatment  of  the 
various  elements  of  its  population.  In  this 
chapter  it  is  our  purpose  by  a  study  of  the  law 
in  respect  to  the  deaf  to  discover  the  attitude  of 
the  state  towards  them  and  the  treatment  which 
it  has  accorded  them. 

Generally  in  ancient  and  even  in  more  modern 
days  the  deaf,  especially  the  congenitally  deaf 
without  education,  have  been  held  in  the  eyes  of 
the  law  more  or  less  as  though  they  were  an 
abnormal  element  in  the  state,  at  times  being  re- 
garded as  though  they  were  of  defective  minds, 

63 


64  THE  DEAF 

and  now  and  then  being  considered  practically  as 
idiots.  Though  there  was  usually  meditated  no 
unduly  harsh  treatment  of  the  deaf,  they  were 
for  the  most  part  deemed  incapable  of  performing 
the  full  duties  of  citizenship,  certain  of  the  rights 
that  belonged  to  their  f ellowmen  were  denied  to 
them,  and  they  were  held  in  considerable  degree 
in  what  amounted  to  legal  bondage.  It  was  only 
in  the  course  of  time  in  most  countries  that  the  law 
came  to  look  upon  the  deaf  differently,  to  regard 
them  more  as  normal  persons,  and  to  grant  them 
in  greater  measure  the  rights  of  other  men.^ 

In  America  the  attention  of  the  law  has  been 
directed  to  the  deaf  both  by  legislation  relating 
to  them,  and  by  court  decisions  affecting  them. 
In  addition,  in  the  constitutions  of  a  number 
of  states,  as  we  shall  see,  provision  is  made  for 
institutions  for  the  education  of  the  deaf;  and 
in  one  state,  Mississippi,  ^  a  provision  is  found 

*  The  legal  treatment  of  the  deaf,  however,  in  past  times  has 
not  been  as  severe  as  has  been  often  supposed.  Both  the 
Justinian  Code  and  the  Civil  Law,  as  well  as  the  Common  Law, 
granted  a  number  of  rights  to  the  deaf,  these  being  in  some 
cases  as  far  as  the  policy  of  the  law  would  permit.  In  a  few 
instances  a  not  unsympathetic  attitude  was  displayed  towards 
them.  In  the  early  Roman  law  and  in  some  other  systems 
word  of  mouth  was  necessary  to  accomplish  certain  legal  acts, 
and  this  of  course  bore  hardly  upon  the  deaf.  In  all  cases  it 
was  the  deaf-mute  from  birth  who  suffered  most.  On  this  sub- 
ject, see  A.  C.  Gaw.  "The  Legal  Status  of  the  Deaf,"  1907; 
H.  P.  Peet,  "  Legal  Rights  and  Responsibilities  of  the  Deaf," 
1857  (Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American  Instructors,  iv., 
p.  17). 

2  Constitution,  1890,  sec.  243.  The  blind  are  also  included  in 
the  exemption. 


LEGAL  TREATMENT  65 

exempting  the  deaf  from  the  payment  of  a 
poll  tax.  The  law  cannot  be  said  to  have  con- 
cerned itself  extensively  with  the  deaf,  but  the 
light  in  which  they  have  been  viewed  has  been 
indicated  fairly  clearly.  Judicial  dicta  and 
opinions  have  been  of  less  frequency  and  im- 
portance than  legislation,  and  have  rather  dealt 
with  the  mental  capacity  of  the  deaf  in  certain 
legal  relations  and  proceedings,  as  in  their  re- 
sponsibility for  crimes,  the  making  of  wills,  the 
appointment  of  interpreters,  etc.  Legislation  it- 
self has  not  often  been  engaged  in  providing  for 
the  deaf  as  a  special  class,  beyond  maintaining 
schools  for  the  education  of  the  young.  Where 
this  legislation  has  taken  place,  it  may  be  said  to 
be  of  three  kinds.  First,  the  deaf  have  been  re- 
garded as  mentally  deficient  or  incapable  of  cer- 
tain civic  actSj  and  discriminatory  laws  have  been 
enacted.  Next,  the  deaf  have  been  thought  to 
need  special  consideration  or  protection  on  the 
part  of  the  state,  and  laws  have  been  passed  for 
the  appointment  of  guardians  or  otherwise  for 
their  security  or  benefit.  The  third  class  of 
legislation  is  where  the  state  bases  its  action  upon 
the  supposed  weakness  of  the  deaf,  their  "  phy- 
sical disability,"  as  it  is  frequently  termed,  and 
here  we  have  a  series  of  what  may  be  called 
negative  benefactions,  designed  to  make  less  hard 
the  way  of  the  deaf.    Such  special  provision  has 


66  THE  DEAF 

consisted  chiefly  in  the  remission  of  taxes  in  cer- 
tain instances  or  of  some  other  form  of  more  or 
less  direct  assistance. 

Legislation   Discriminatoey   eespecting  the   Deaf 

Legislation  which  may  be  termed  discrim- 
inatory in  respect  to  the  deaf  has  really  been  of 
but  slight  extent/  In  Georgia  we  find  an  enact- 
ment of  1840,^  in  which  the  deaf  were  to  be  re- 
garded pro  tanto  as  idiots,  so  far  as  concerned 
the  managing  of  their  estates,  though  this  was 
in  fact  intended  for  their  protection.  In  New 
Mexico  a  law  has  been  enacted,  forbidding  those 
deaf  by  birth  from  making  wills,  unless  their  in- 
tention is  declared  in  writing ;  ^  and  in  Louisiana 
a  deaf  man  is  incapable  of  acting  as  a  witness  to 
a  testament.*  In  several  states,  as  New  York 
and  Massachusetts,  there  have  been  enactments 
in  regard  to  deaf-mute  immigrants  together  with 
other  classes  who  might  be  likely  to  become  a 

*  In  New  York  we  find  an  early  reference  to  the  deaf  in  the 
rules  adopted  in  1761  by  the  state  assembly  regarding  suf- 
frage qualifications  in  the  election  of  its  own  members,  one 
of  which  rules  declared  that  "  no  man  deaf  and  dumb  from 
his  nativity  has  a  vote,"  though  this  may  have  been  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  nearly  all  voting  then  was  viva  voce. 
William  Smith,  "  History  of  the  Late  Province  of  New  York," 
1830,  ii.,  p.  358. 

^  Laws,  p.  110.  A  Kentucky  statute  refers  to  "  idiots  and 
those  by  speech  or  sign  incapable"  of  understanding  (Stat., 
1894,   §  2149),  but  the  deaf  may  not  necessarily  be  included. 

"Cod.  Laws,  1865,  ch.  3,  §  2;  1884,  §  1378. 

*Civ.  Code,  1838,  §  1852;  1898,  §  1591. 


LEGAL  TREATMENT  67 

public  charge,  with  the  exaction  of  bond  as 
security.^  In  Georgia  ^  there  is  an  enactment  in 
reference  to  various  itinerant  concerns  which 
might  leave  deaf  persons,  as  well  as  others,  in  the 
state  as  public  charges.^ 

Legislation  in  Protection  of  the  Deaf 

Legislation  of  the  second  class,  where  the  deaf 
are  thought  to  require  particular  consideration 
or  protection,  has  likewise  been  infrequent.  The 
first  instance  is  an  enactment  of  Massachusetts 
in  1776,  *  relating  to  the  appointment,  on  certain 
occasions,  of  guardians  for  the  deaf,  especially 
those  deaf  "  from  their  nativity,"  together  with 
other  persons — which  is  probably  the  earliest 
statutory  reference  to  the  deaf  in  America.  A 
later  example  is  an  enactment  in  Georgia  in 
1818,^  and  still  in  force,  providing  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  guardians,  on  somewhat  the  same 

*  In  1849  New  York  required  the  masters  of  ships  landing  in 
New  York  City  to  report  to  the  mayor  what  passengers  were 
deaf,  blind  or  insane.  Laws,  ch.  350.  See  also  Laws,  1851, 
ch.  523;  1881,  ch.  427.  See  Public  Statutes  of  Massachusetts, 
1882,  p.  468.  The  present  United  States  immigration  laws  do^ 
not  directly  exclude  the  deaf,  but  they  have  been  thought  at' 
times  to  have  been  made  to  bear  unduly  upon  them. 

*Code,  1911,  §  559.  The  application  is  to  "proprietors  of 
circuses  and  other  migratory  companies." 

'  In  a  few  states,  as  California  and  New  York,  attempts  have 
been  made  to  secure  laws  barring  the  deaf  from  licenses  to 
run  automobiles.  Such  measures,  however,  are  to  be  re- 
garded less  as  discrimination  against  the  deaf  than  for  the 
public  safety. 

*Laws,  1776,  ch.  20. 

"Laws,  1818,  p.  342;  1840,  p.  345;  Code,  1911,  §  3089. 


68  THE  DEAF 

order  as  that  which  we  have  indicated,  for  deaf 
and  dumb  persons  incapable  of  managing  their 
estates.  In  New  Jersey  in  1838  ^  a  law  was 
enacted,  forbidding  deaf  persons  under  seven- 
teen years  of  age  to  be  bound  out  as  apprentices. 
In  Ohio  a  statute  also  of  1838  ^  provided 
for  guardians  for  the  deaf,  and  several  modern 
statutes  are  somewhat  of  this  nature.  In  Maine 
the  deaf  cannot  be  sent  to  the  reform  school.^ 
In  Arkansas  *  and  Missouri  ^  it  is  provided  that 
the  court  may  appoint  guardians  for  deaf  persons 
from  fourteen  to  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  case 
of  the  death  of  a  parent.  Of  somewhat  different 
character,  but  still  for  the  protection  of  the  deaf, 
is  the  enactment  in  several  states,  as  Wisconsin  ® 
and  Virginia,"^  where  injury  or  abuse  of  the  deaf 
is  made  a  matter  of  special  attention  in  the  law. 

Legislation  in  Aid  of  the  Deaf 

Examples   of  legislation   designed  to  be   of 
material  aid  to  the  deaf  are  rather  more  common, 

"Laws,  p.  128. 

*Laws,  1838,  p.  40;  1841,  p.  573. 

•Rev.  Stat,  1883,  ch.  142,  §  2. 

*  Digest,  1894,  §  3571;  1904,  §  3760. 

» Stat,  1872,  p.  672 ;  Rev.  Stat.,  1909,  §  407.  In  Kansas  by 
opinion  of  the  attorney-general,  the  juvenile  court  laws  do  not 
apply  to  the  deaf. 

•Gen.  Stat,  1898,  p.  2672.  Abuse  or  ill-treatment  of  an  in- 
mate of  a  state  institution  for  the  deaf,  the  blind  and  other 
classes  may  be  punished    by  fine  or  imprisonment. 

'  Laws,  1908,  p.  55.  It  is  made  a  misdemeanor  to  abduct  or 
kidnap  inmates  of  "  deaf  and  dumb  and  blind  hospitals  ". 


LEGAL  TREATMENT  69 

the  chief  of  which,  as  we  have  noted,  is  the  exemp- 
tion from  the  payment  of  some  personal  or  prop- 
erty tax/  Thus  is  Missouri  we  find  a  statute  of 
1843  ^  allowing  a  deaf  man  to  be  exempt  from 
the  poll  tax  and  the  tax  on  property  up  to  $300. 
Indiana  in  1848  ^  exempted  its  deaf  and  blind 
citizens  from  a  poll  tax  and  a  property  tax  up  to 
$500.  Mississippi  *  exempted  these  classes  from 
the  road  duty  in  1878,  and  two  years  later  from 
the  poll  tax  as  well,  this  exemption  being  incor- 
porated in  the  state  constitution,  as  we  have  seen. 
Tennessee  ^  in  1895  also  exempted  from  the 
poll  tax  the  deaf,  the  blind  and  those  incapable  of 
labor.  In  Pennsylvania  legislation  seems  to  have 
gone  the  furthest  in  its  desire  to  be  of  material 
help  to  the  deaf,  for  here  we  find  the  deaf  with 
the  blind  exempted  from  the  penalties  which 
usually  apply  to  tramps.^  Such  are  instances 
of  this  form  of  legislation,  but  similar  legislation 
has  been  enacted  in  other  states. 

Very  rare  are  instances  where  the  state  makes 
special  provision  for  the  care  of,  or  extends 
special  poor  relief  to,  any  of  its  deaf  population. 

*  In  several  states  there  are  provisions  in  regard  to  the  em- 
ployment of  interpreters  for  the  deaf.  See  Code  of  Georgia, 
1911,  §  5864 ;  Gen.  Laws  of  Rhode  Island,  1909,  §  3855. 

^Laws,  p.  202. 

'Laws,  ch.  76. 

*Laws,  1878,  ch.  52;  1880,  p.  20. 

''Laws,  1895,  ch.  120;  Ann.  Code,  1896,  §  686. 

"Purdon's  Digest,  1903,  p.  5023.  In  Georgia  persons  deaf 
and  blind  are  expressly  permitted  to  make  wills  if  properly 
scrutinized.     Code,  1911,  §  3844. 


70  THE  DEAF 

The  chief  example  seems  to  be  the  action  of  some 
of  the  New  England  states  with  their  so-called 
"  missions  for  the  deaf."  These  are  associations, 
composed  in  great  part  of  the  deaf  and  engaged 
in  various  forms  of  mission  work,  and  to  them 
state  funds  are  granted  to  aid  the  aged,  infirm 
and  helpless  deaf.  By  this  plan  Maine  is  said  to 
have  been  without  a  deaf-mute  pauper  in  ten 
years.  The  amounts  allowed,  however,  for  this 
purpose  are  not  large,  being  $200  a  year  in  Maine 
and  $150  in  New  Hampshire.^  In  Ohio  the 
counties  are  allowed  to  contract  with  private 
homes  for  the  maintenance  of  the  aged  and  infirm 
deaf — there  being  but  one  such  in  the  state,  that 
supported  by  the  deaf  themselves — and  the  state 
board  of  charities  is  given  power  to  remove 
deaf  persons  thereto  from  the  county  infirmaries.^ 
Instances  are  likewise  rare  where  the  state 
makes  a  distinct  appropriation  of  money  for  the 
benefit  of  the  deaf  other  than  for  schools.  We 
have  one  instance  in  New  York  where  the  state 
for  a  certain  number  of  years  allowed  a  small  sum 
to  the  publishers  of  a  paper  for  the  benefit  of 
poor  deaf-mutes.^ 

*  See  Laws  of  New  Hampshire,  1895,  ch.  131.  This  relief  is 
here  known  as  the  "  Granite  State  Mission  ".  See  also  Deaf- 
Mutes'  Journal,  Feb.  9,  1911. 

^  See  Laws,  1896,  p.  419 ;  1898,  p.  212 ;  1900,  p.  369. 

'This  seems  to  have  been  begun  in  1839,  and  continued 
nearly  fifty  years.  See  Laws,  1839,  ch.  329;  1858,  ch.  546; 
1886,  ch.  330.  The  sum  of  $100  was  first  granted  to  the 
Radii,  and  later  appropriations  to  succeeding  publications. 


LEGAL  TREATMENT  71 

As  a  last  species  of  legislation  in  aid  of  the 
deaf,  we  have  a  single  enactment  of  quite  dif- 
ferent character  from  that  which  we  have  hitherto 
found,  and  of  later  appearance.  This  is  the  law 
enacted  in  Minnesota  in  1913,^  which  provides 
for  a  division  for  the  deaf  in  the  state  bureau  of 
labor.    Its  duties  are  to 


Collect  statistics  of  the  deaf,  ascertain  what  trades 
or  occupations   are  most  suitable   for  them   and  best 

adapted  to  promote  their  interests, use   [its] 

best  efforts  to  aid  them  in  securing  such  employment 
as  they  may  be  best  fitted  to  engage  in,  keep  a  census 
and  obtain  facts,  information  and  statistics  as  to  their 
condition  in  life  with  a  view  to  the  betterment  of  their 
lot,  and  endeavor  to  obtain  statistics  and  information 
of  the  conditions  of  labor  and  employment  and  educa- 
tion in  other  states  with  a  view  to  promoting  the  gen- 
eral welfare  of  the  deaf  in  this  state. 

Such  legislation  may  prove  highly  beneficial  to 
the  deaf,  not  only  in  rendering  very  desirable  aid 
to  them,  but  also  in  offering  means  of  learning 
very  important  facts  as  to  their  condition. 

Tenor  of   Court  Decisions  AFFECtiNG  the  Deaf 

The  opinions  of  the  courts  of  law  in  regard  to 
the  deaf  have,  as  we  have  noted,  rather  revolved 
upon  the  mental  capacity  of  the  deaf  in  certain 

*Laws,  p.  330.  The  law  was  secured  by  the  efforts  of  the 
deaf  themselves.    See  Deaf-Mutes'  Journal,  May  22,  1913. 


7«  THE  DEAF 

proceedings,  and  upon  their  competence  in  cer- 
tain legal  relations.  These  judicial  expressions 
have  in  the  main  referred  to  four  relations  of  the 
deaf  in  the  law:  1.  in  their  responsibility  for 
crime;  2.  in  acting  as  witnesses;  3.  in  requiring 
guardians;  and  4.  in  the  making  of  wills  and 
contracts  generally. 

As  to  the  responsibility  of  the  deaf  man  for  his 
misdeeds,  there  has  been  in  times  past  more  or 
less  presumption  against  it,  especially  if  he  were 
born  deaf  and  were  without  education ;  but  to-day 
he  is  quite  generally  held  fully  answerable  for 
his  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  and  his  deafness 
cannot  mitigate  his  punishment.^  As  a  witness, 
the  deaf  man  under  proper  circumstances  is  now 
allowed  to  appear  without  hindrance  before 
virtually  any  court.^  As  to  special  guardians, 
these  will  be  accorded  the  deaf  when  there  ap- 
pears sufficient  need,  though  there  is  less  of  this 
than  formerly.^  With  respect  to  the  testa- 
mentary capacity  of  the  deaf,  we  find  that  in 
times  past  the  deaf  were  often  said  to  be  more 
or  less  incapable  of  making  wills,  though  this  pre- 

^See  Hoiist.  Crim.  Cas.  (Del.),  291;  8  Jones  L.  (N.  C),  136; 
14  Mass.,  207.  This  last  case  was  one  of  larceny.  See  also 
I.  L.  Peet,  "  Psychical  Status  and  Criminal  Responsibility 
of  the  Totally  Uneducated  Deaf  and  Dumb,"  1872  (Journal  of 
Psychological  Medicine,  Jan.,  1872)  ;  Annals,  xvii.,  1872,  p.  65. 

*37  S.  W.  (Tex.),  440;  118  Mo.,  127;  39  S.  C,  318;  1 
Den.   (N.  Y.),  19;  23  Col.,  314;  3  N.  M.,  134. 

^  See  16  Ohio  St.,  455,  where  a  guardian  was  allowed ;  41 
N.  J.  Eq.,  409,  where  the  deaf  were  said  to  be  liable  to  guar- 
dianship. 


LEGAL  TREATMENT  73 

sumption  could  always  be  overcome.  Naturally 
their  wills  were  subjected  to  considerable  scrutiny 
for  the  purpose  ^f  preventing  fraud;  but  if 
written  and  apparently  genuine,  they  could 
usually  stand.  To-day  the  deaf  are  practically 
everywhere  held  to  be  quite  capable  in  this 
respect,  and  probably  nowhere  would  a  will  be 
set  aside  for  reason  of  the  deafness  of  the  testator 
alone.  Likewise  the  deaf  are  now  generally  held 
capable  of  entering  into  all  contractual  rela- 
tions.^ 

Present  Trend  of  the  Law  in  Respect  to  the  Deaf 

In  most  of  the  statutes  and  decisions  to  which 
we  have  referred  there  appears  a  distinct  trend 
towards  treating  the  deaf  quite  as  normal  per- 
sons, and  the  tendency  may  be  considered  to  be 
general  to-day  to  hold  them  very  much  as  other 
citizens.  The  greater  part  of  all  the  special  legis- 
lation has  ceased  of  late  years,  and  it  is  seldom 

*See  1  Jones  Eq.  (N.  C),  221.  In  4  Johns.  Ch.,  441,  a  New 
York  case  in  1820,  it  was  said  by  Chancellor  Kent  that  the 
deaf  and  dumb  were  considered  prima  facie  as  insane,  in- 
capable of  making  a  will  and  fit  subjects  for  guardianship,  by 
the  civil  law.  The  presumption  was  due,  he  said,  to  the  fact 
that  "  want  of  hearing  and  speech  exceedingly  cramps  the 
powers  of  the  mind,"  but  it  was  to  be  overcome  by  proof. 
In  this  case  the  presumption  was  overruled.  The  implication, 
however,  never  applied  to  the  deaf  not  born  so.  At  present 
there  is  no  presumption  in  connection  with  wills,  deeds,  wit- 
nessing, or  guardianship.  See  3  Conn.,  299;  27  Gratt.  (Va.), 
190;  6  Ga.,  324;  3  Ired.  (N.  C),  535.  In  the  Missouri  case, 
quoted  above,  it  was  said:  "Presumption  of  idiocy  does  not 
seem  to  obtain  in  modern  practice,  at  least  not  in  the  United 
States." 


74  THE  DEAF 

now  that  a  particular  enactment  is  placed  upon 
the  statute  books.  Where  such  does  occur,  it 
arises  chiefly  where  some  peculiar  protection  of 
the  deaf  has  been  felt  to  be  needed.  Discrim- 
inatory legislation  has  practically  disappeared,  as 
has  also  beneficial  legislation  of  the  old  sort,  the 
only  kind  likely  to  be  enacted  in  the  future  being 
along  the  new  lines  pointed  out. 

In  judicial  proceedings  likewise  particular 
usage  in  respect  to  the  deaf  has  almost  entirely 
passed  away,  and  the  deaf  to-day  receive  little 
distinctive  treatment.  Practically  the  sole  special 
consideration  now  accorded  them  is  in  the  pro- 
curement of  interpreters  for  proper  occasions. 
On  the  whole,  then,  the  present  attitude  of  the  law 
may  be  said  to  be  to  regard  the  deaf  more  and 
more  fully  as  citizens,  to  allow  them  all  the  rights 
and  duties  of  such,  and  to  consider  them  in  little 
need  of  particular  aid  or  attention.^ 

*The  deaf  as  a  class  may  be  said  to  be  strongly  opposed  to 
nearly  all  forms  of  legal  treatment  different  from  those  of 
their  fellow-citizens.  In  Texas,  where  they  have  been  ex- 
empted from  a  personal  or  property  tax,  they  have  made 
formal  protest  against  the  exemption.  Annals,  1.,  1905,  p.  263; 
Report  of  Mississippi  School,  1911,  p.  72.  They  have,  as  an- 
other instance,  voiced  opposition  to  the  release  of  criminals 
on  the  ground  of  their  deafness.  See  Proceedings  of  Con- 
vention of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  ii.,  1883,  p.  16. 


CHAPTER   IV 

ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  THE  DEAF 

Extent  to  Which  the  Deaf  are  a  Wage-earn- 
ing AND  Self-supporting  Element  of  the 
Population 

IN  the  want  of  the  sense  of  hearing,  and  with 
it  oftentimes  the  faculty  of  speech,  the  deaf 
are  deprived  of  most  important  powers,  and, 
it  might  appear,  of  an  essential  equipment  for 
work  among  men.  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
the  deaf  start  out  into  life  severely  handicapped, 
nor  can  the  difficulties  which  they  must  face  in 
meeting  the  world  pass  unregarded. 

Yet  notwithstanding  the  particular  adversity 
under  which  the  deaf  have  to  labor,  they  remain 
in  full  possession  of  all  their  other  physical  forces, 
and  it  may  be  a  question  whether  on  the  whole 
they  are  to  be  considered  disqualified  from  engag- 
ing in  the  industrial  pursuits  of  men.  It  may  be 
that  there  are  occupations  in  which  their  deaf- 
ness will  not  prove  of  material  consequence,  and 
that  in  such  fields  they  will  be  able  to  enter  with- 
out serious  impediment.  In  the  present  chapter 
we  shall  attempt  to  see  how  far  these  possibilities 
seem  to  be  realized  in  the  actual  industrial  life  of 
the  community.  In  other  words,  we  shall  consider 

75 


76  THE  DEAF 

what  is  the  place  of  the  deaf  as  economic  factors 
in  this  hfe,  and  how  far  they  are  independent 
wage-earners,  at  the  same  time  comparing  their 
economic  standing  with  that  of  the  general  popu- 
lation. 

The  returns  of  the  census,  covering  the  entire 
country  and  presenting  the  results  of  a  careful 
investigation,  will  furnish  our  most  complete 
source  of  information.  Here  ^  are  reported  in 
gainful  occupations  12,678  deaf  persons  over  ten 
years  of  age,  or  38.1  per  cent  of  the  number  of 
the  deaf  over  this  age.^  This  is  somewhat  less 
than  the  percentage  for  the  general  population, 
which  is  50.2.  Of  the  deaf  twenty  years  of  age 
and  over,  however,  the  percentage  gainfully  em- 
ployed is  50.1,  embracing  11,670  persons.  In  the 
following  table  is  shown  the  number  of  the  deaf 
over  ten  years  of  age  in  the  five  great  occupa- 
tions, with  the  respective  percentages,  and  also 
the  percentages  for  the  general  population. 

GENERAL  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  DEAF 

Peb  cent  of 

Per  GENERAii 

OccTTPATiON                          Number       cent  Population 

Agricultural  pursuits   4,761          37.5  35.7 

Manufacturing  and   mechanical.     4,583          36.1  24.4 

Domestic   and   personal 2,395          18.9  19.2 

Trade  and  transportation 552           4.4  16.4 

Professional    387            3.1  4.3 

*  Special  Reports,  p.  146fif. 

^The  proportion  for  the  deaf  would  no  doubt  be  higher  but 
for  the  large  number  in  the  schools.  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  "  keeping  house  ",  the  most  usual  occupation  reported  by 
females,  is  not  listed  among  the  occupations. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  77 

It  is  seen  from  this  that  the  proportions  are  very 
nearly  the  same  for  the  deaf  and  the  general 
population  in  agricultural  pursuits,  domestic  and 
personal  service,  and  professional  service.  In 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  occupations  the 
proportion  of  the  deaf  is  indeed  considerably 
higher.  In  trade  and  transportation,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  proportion  for  the  deaf  is  far  lower 
than  that  for  the  general  population — a  condition 
to  be  accounted  for  by  the  very  evident  need  of 
hearing  in  such  pursuits. 

Of  the  deaf  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits, 
3,366,  or  about  three-fourths,  are  in  a  position  of 
ownership  or  direction,  being  farmers,  planters, 
or  overseers;  1,218  are  agricultural  laborers, 
while  75  are  gardeners,  florists,  or  nursery- 
men. The  large  number  of  the  deaf  in  profes- 
sional occupations  is  in  part  explained  by  the  fact 
that  206  are  themselves  engaged  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf.  Other  specified  occupations 
where  fifty  or  more  of  the  deaf  are  employed  in 
each  are  as  follows: 

SPECIFIED  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  DEAF 

Laborers  not  specified 1,217 

Servants  and  waiters  712 

Boot  and  shoemakers  and  repairers 559 

Printers,  lithographers  and  pressmen  382 

Carpenters  and  joiners   371 

Dressmakers    314 

Seamstresses    306 

Tailors  236 

Painters,  glaziers  and  varnishers    223 


78  THE  DEAF 

Launderers    210 

Cigar  and  tobacco  operators  162 

Cabinet-makers   119 

Merchants  and  dealers  (retail)    115 

Iron  and  steel  workers 106 

Clerks  and  copyists   105 

Housekeepers  and  stewards  91 

Machinists    87 

Blacksmiths    84 

Miners  and  quarrymen 81 

Cotton  mill  operators 78 

Barbers  and  hairdressers 74 

Bakers     61 

Agents   61 

Artists  and  teachers  of  art 60 

Harness  and  saddle  makers  and  repairers 59 

Draymen,  hackmen,  teamsters,  etc 56 

Manufacturers  and  officials  55 

Masons    52 

So  far,  then,  as  appears  from  the  findings  of 
the  United  States  census,  the  deaf  are  seen  to  be 
distributed  among  the  chief  industries  very  gen- 
erally, and  in  very  many  of  what  are  known  as 
"  trades  "  they  are  able  to  be  profitably  employed. 
In  some  activities  of  life  deafness  is  of  course  an 
effectual  barrier,  but  these  are  rather  restricted 
ones.  There  is  but  one  great  division  of  employ- 
ment in  which  the  deaf  cannot  enter  extensively, 
namely,  commercial  and  mercantile  pursuits. 
With  these  exceptions,  the  deaf  are  found  to  be 
industrially  occupied  like  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity, and  to  be  able  to  engage,  and  actually 
engaging,  in  most  of  the  employments  of  men.^ 

In  respect  to  the  general  economic  status  of 

*  Several  of  the  deaf  have  won  distinction  as  artists,  and 
there  have  been  not  a  few  inventors.  In  the  civil  service  of  the 
National  government  there  are  said  to  be  nearly  two  score. 
In  1908  an  order  was  issued  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission, 
debarring  deaf  persons  from  this  service.     So  great  was  the 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  79 

the  deaf,  a  second  source  of  information,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  scale,  as  it  were,  is  to  be  f omid  in 
the  proportion  of  the  deaf  cared  for  in  pubhc 
alms-houses.  Though  a  much  greater  proportion 
of  the  deaf  are  discovered  here  than  of  the  gen- 
eral population,  the  deaf  do  not  on  the  whole  con- 
stitute a  large  part  of  the  alms-house  population 
of  the  country.  In  1910  the  census  reported  540 
deaf-mutes  to  be  in  alms-houses,  or  six-tenths  of 
one  per  cent  of  all  their  inmates.^  That  is  to 
say,  a  little  over  one  per  cent  (1.2)  of  the  total 
number  of  the  deaf  in  the  United  States  are 
found  to-day  in  alms-houses.^ 

Such  is  the  evidence  we  have  in  respect  to  the 
economic  standing  of  the  deaf.  Yet  the  fact 
that  the  deaf  are  usually  found  capable  of  taking 
care  of  themselves  should  not  be,  after  all,  a  mat- 
ter either  of  doubt  or  of  wonder.  They  are  for 
the  most  part,  as  we  have  indicated,  quite  "  able- 
protest,  however,  made  by  the  deaf  and  their  friends  that  the 
decision  was  reversed  by  the  President,  and  the  deaf  were  al- 
lowed to  compete  for  any  position  where  their  deafness  would 
not  interfere.  See  Annals,  liii.,  1908,  p.  249 ;  liv.,  1909,  p.  387 ; 
Volta  Review,  x.,  1908,  p.  224 ;  Silent  Worker,  Feb.,  1909 ;  Pro- 
ceedings of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  ix.,  1910,  pp. 
26,  70. 

^Paupers  in  Alms-houses,  1913,  p.  76.  In  1911  there  were 
in  the  alms-houses  of  Illinois,  according  to  the  Report  of 
the  state  board  of  charities,  38  deaf-mutes,  or  0.5  per  cent  of 
the  entire  alms-house  population;  in  Indiana,  81,  or  2.6  per 
cent ;  in  New  York,  191,  or  1.8  per  cent ;  and  in  Virginia,  17,  or 
0.7  per  cent.  In  Michigan,  according  to  the  annual  Abstract 
of  Statistical  Information  Relating  to  the  Insane,  Deaf  and 
Dumb,  etc.,  for  1912,  of  the  1,059  deaf  persons  reported,  32,  or 
3  per  cent,  were  cared  for  at  public  expense. 

*  The  percentage  for  the  general  population  is  0.1. 


80  THE  DEAF 

bodied,"  and  but  for  their  want  of  hearing  are 
perfectly  normal  in  respect  to  '''  doing  a  job."  If 
they  are  skillful  and  efficient,  their  deafness 
proves  comparatively  httle  of  a  drawback.  An- 
other contributing  cause  in  the  situation  lies  in  the 
fact  that  most  of  the  deaf  have  attended  the 
special  schools  provided  for  them,  where  in- 
dustrial preparation  with  the  opportunity  to 
learn  a  trade  is  offered  and  largely  availed  of.^ 
When  they  go  out  into  the  world,  they  may  be 
supposed  to  have  an  industrial  equipment,  which, 
besides  taking  in  view  their  handicap,  is  one  in 
many  respects  fully  equal  to  that  of  their  hear- 
ing fellow-laborers ;  and  though  many  of  the  deaf, 
apparently  the  greater  number,  do  not  follow  the 
trade  learned  at  school,  yet  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  training  and  lessons  in  industry  there  acquired 
prove  of  decided  practical  advantage.^ 

*In  many  schools  it  is  said  that  few  of  their  former  pupils 
have  failed  to  be  self-supporting,  especially  those  who  have 
taken  the  full  prescribed  course.  Of  the  New  York  Institu- 
tion the  proportion  is  stated  to  be  as  low  as  four  per  cent. 
Report,  1907,  p.  37.  Of  the  Michigan  School  it  is  asserted  that 
out  of  1,800  former  pupils,  only  three  are  not  self-supporting. 
Proceedings  of  Michigan  Conference  of  Charities  md  Correc- 
tions, 1907,  pp.  32,  63.  Similar  claims  are  made  for  other 
schools  in  respect  to  the  condition  of  the  deaf.  By  the  head 
of  the  New  Jersey  School  it  is  stated :  "  Inquiry  at  the  state 
prison  elicits  the  fact  that  there  is  not  among  its  vast  number 
of  inmates  a  single  deaf  man  or  woman,  and,  indeed,  I  know 
of  no  educated  deaf  convict  or  pauper  in  the  state."  Report 
of  Board  of  Education  of  New  Jersey,  1904,  p.  323.  In  1911  a 
committee  of  the  Convention  of  American  Instructors  of  the 
Deaf  was  appointed  to  collect  information  and  statistics  as  to 
the  occupations  and  wages  of  the  deaf.  Proceedings,  xix., 
p.  217. 

'  A  special  committee  on  the  industrial  condition  of  the  deaf 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  81 

Views  of  the  Deaf  as  to  theie  Economic  Standing 

To  what  extent  the  deaf  hold  themselves  able 
to  stand  alongside  the  general  population  may- 
well  be  indicated  by  what  they  themselves  have 
to  say.  Of  the  adult  deaf  who  have  had  school- 
ing, it  is  claimed  that  eighty-one  per  cent 
are  gainfully  employed;  ^  and  that  of  the  adult 
male  deaf  ninety  per  cent  are  self-supporting.^ 
A  large  proportion  are  said  to  be  the  heads  of 
families  and  the  possessors  of  homes.^  In  re- 
spect to  the  conditions  of  their  employment,  in- 
cluding that  of  wages,  they  are  usually  ready  to 
declare  that  they  are  little  different  from  those 
of  the  general  population,  sometimes  taking  pains 

of  the  National  Association  of  the  Deaf  stated  as  a  conclusion : 
"  More  deaf  workmen  learn  a  new  trade  when  they  leave  school 
than  follow  the  one  they  were  taught  at  school."  Proceedings, 
vii.,  1904,  p.  216.  In  Minnesota  the  division  for  the  deaf  in 
the  state  bureau  of  labor  works  in  connection  with  the  state 
school.  See  Deaf-Mutes'  Journal,  March  7,  1912.  On  the  gen- 
eral industrial  training  of  the  deaf  and  its  results,  see  AnnaU, 
1.,  1905,  p.  98;  Ivii.,  1912,  p.  364;  Volta  Review,  xi.,  1909,  p. 
sil  (Proceedings  of  American  Association  to  Promote  the 
Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf);  xiii.,  1912,  pp.  542,  595; 
Proceedings  of  American  Instructors,  xv.,  1898,  p.  86;  xvi., 
1901,  p.  238 ;  xvii.,  1905,  p.  93 ;  Report  of  Special  Committee  of 
Board  of  Directors  of  Pennsylvania  Institution  to  Collect  In- 
formation as  to  Lives  and  Occupations  of  Former  Pupils,  1884 ; 
Report  of  Pennsylvania  Institution,  1885,  p.  30;  Mississippi 
School,  1893,  p.  9;  1911,  pp.  36,  52;  Manual  and  History  of 
Ohio  School,  1911,  p.  16;  Report  of  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  1885,  p.  ccxxxv. ;  Journal  of  Social  Sci- 
ence, xxvi.,  1889,  p.  91. 

^  Proceedings  of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  viii.,  1907, 
p.  41;  Indiana  Bulletin  of  Charities  and  Corrections,  June, 
1912. 

*  Proceedings  of  National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Cor- 
rections, 1906,  pp.  232,  239. 

^IMd.;  Proceedings  of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf, 
loc.  cit. 


82  THE  DEAF 

to   point   out   the   substantial   equality   of   the 
two.^ 

The  views  of  the  deaf  in  the  whole  matter  of 
their  industrial  footing  may  be  expressed  as 
summed  up  in  the  following  resolutions,  which 
were  reported  by  a  special  committee  on  indus- 
trial conditions  of  the  deaf  at  the  convention  of 
the  National  Association  of  the  Deaf  in  1904:  ^ 

1.  There  are  few  ordinary  occupations  in  which  the 
deaf  do  not  or  cannot  engage. 

2.  Employers  and  foremen  treat  deaf  workmen  as 
they  do  hearing  workmen. 

*  In  New  York  the  deaf  are  said  to  "  earn  from  $2500  a  year 
to  $6  or  $7  a  week  ",  most  being  "  journeymen  at  their  trades 
or  skilled  factory  operatives ".  Proceedings  of  Empire  State 
Association  of  Deaf-Mutes,  xx.,  1899,  p.  7.  In  Missouri  the 
earnings  of  the  graduates  of  the  state  school  are  reported  as 
ranging  up  to  $1300  a  year.  Report  of  Missouri  School,  1912, 
p.  28.  In  Massachusetts,  In  an  investigation  of  the  state 
board  of  education,  it  has  been  found  that  of  84  deaf  men 
who  had  left  school  between  1907  and  1912,  the  average  wage 
was  $7.78  a  week.  Volta  Review,  xv.,  1913,  p.  183.  The  deaf 
when  opportunity  offers  often  become  members  of  labor  unions. 
They  are  said  "  quite  generally  to  join  labor  unions  where  the 
nature  of  their  occupation  permits  ",  though,  on  the  whole,  it 
does  not  seem  that  a  large  proportion  do.  Proceedings  of 
National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  vii.,  1904,  pp.  143,  218.  For 
other  views  of  the  deaf  on  their  employment  and  its  returns, 
see  ibid.,  i.,  1880,  p.  10 ;  iv.,  1893,  pp.  122,  167 ;  v.,  1896,  p.  35 ; 
vi.,  1899,  p.  64;  viii.,  1907,  p.  53;  Empire  State  Association  of 
Deaf-Mutes,  xi.,  1887,  p.  9;  Illinois  Gallaudet  Union,  v.,  1897, 
p.  25;  Reunion  of  Alumni  of  Wisconsin  School  for  the  Deaf, 
vii.,  1895,  p.  2 ;  Louisiana  Pelican,  of  Louisiana  School,  Oct.  17, 
1908. 

^  Proceedings,  vii.,  p.  190ff.  Questionnaires  were  submitted 
to  deaf  workmen  and  their  employers,  and  the  conclusions  (p. 
227)  were  based  on  their  replies.  These  resolutions  were  con- 
firmed by  further  findings  reported  in  1907,  especially  as  to  the 
similarity  of  the  wages  of  the  deaf  and  the  hearing,  and  as  to 
the  satisfaction  of  employers  with  deaf  workmen.  Proceedings, 
viii.,  p.  48. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  83 

S.  Deafness  is  a  hindrance  to  a  great  extent,  but  it  is 
not  such  a  formidable  barrier  as  has  popularly  been 
supposed. 

4.  The  deaf  workman  usually  has  steady  work. 
Those  that  do  not  generally  have  only  themselves  to 
blame. 

5.  The  deaf  invariably  get  the  same  wages  for  the 
same  class  of  work  as  the  hearing. 

6.  Employers  and  foremen  are  glad  to  have  deaf 
workmen  who  can  show  that  they  have  the  ability  to  do 
the  work  expected  of  them,  and  take  them  on  a  basis 
equal  to  that  of  the  hearing.  If  they  are  competent, 
their  services  secure  ready  recognition.^ 

The  Deaf  as  Alms-seekers 

It  might  be  thought  that  the  deaf  might  some- 
times find  their  infirmity  a  useful  means  of 
soliciting  alms  from  the  public.  But  it  is  grati- 
fying to  learn  that  very  few  of  them  ever  try  to 
make  capital  out  of  their  affliction.  That  a  deaf 
man  merely  as  such  is  in  no  wise  to  be  considered 
a  special  beneficiary  of  charity  is  a  principle 
spiritedly  endorsed  by  nearly  all  the  deaf  them- 
selves ;  and  they  are  found  to  be  the  last  to  lend 
encouragement  to  any  appeals  for  aid  from  the 
charitably  disposed.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  fact,  perhaps  not  as 
widely  known  as  it  should  be,  that  there  are  per- 

*  Another  conclusion  was  that  rural  pursuits  are  better  for 
the  deaf  than  factory  work. 

^  See  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American  Instructors,  v., 
1858,  p.  351 ;  Report  of  Kentucky  School,  1867,  p.  13n. ;  Annals, 
X.,  1858,  p.  161 ;  xxiv.,  1879,  p.  194. 


84  THE  DEAF 

sons  able  to  hear  who  often  pretend  to  be  deaf 
and  dumb  in  order  to  work  on  the  sensibihties  of 
the  pubHc.  To  such  appeals  a  far  more  ready 
response  is  met  with  than  should  be  the  case.  The 
deaf  themselves  usually  do  what  they  can  to  pre- 
vent this,  a  certain  number  indeed  going  to  con- 
siderable lengths  in  this  direction,  and  not  in- 
frequently running  such  impostors  down/  In 
nearly  all  the  state  associations  of  the  deaf  as  well 
as  in  the  national  organization  it  is  made  a 
particular  object  to  investigate  and  prosecute 
mendicants  simulating  deafness,  while  in  their 
.papers  a  vigorous  war  is  being  waged.^  At  the 
same  time  by  many  of  the  deaf  a  campaign  of 
education  is  being  conducted  for  the  enlighten- 
ment of  the  public.  The  following  resolutions, 
adopted  by  the  National  Association  of  the  Deaf 
in  1910,'attest  their  feeling  in  the  matter:  ^ 

Whereas,  There  is  no  necessity  for  an  educated  deaf 

*  In  the  year  1911  the  number  of  impostors  whose  arrest  was 
secured  by  the  deaf  was  38.  Deaf-Mutes'  Journal,  Sept.  4, 
1913. 

*  In  many  issues  this  is  made  a  prominent  feature. 

'Proceedings,  ix.,  p.  89.  See  also  Proceedings  of  Pennsyl- 
vania Society  for  the  Advancement  of  the  Deaf,  xxiv.,  1910, 
pp.  12,  32 ;  Iowa  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  the  Deaf, 
vi.,  1895,  p.  29.  The  action  on  the  part  of  the  deaf  is  worthy 
of  the  highest  praise,  and  speaks  volumes  for  them.  The  real 
cause  for  wonder,  however,  is  that  the  public  should  ever 
allow  itself  to  be  deceived  by  those  asking  alms  on  the  pretexts 
given.  By  no  disease  known  to  medical  science,  save  paralysis 
alone,  can  a  man  lose  his  speech  and  hearing  at  one  and  the 
same  time.  It  may  be  safely  estimated  that  of  such  gentry  98, 
perhaps  100,  per  cent  are  rank  frauds. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  85 

person  to  beg  or  solicit  alms  on  account  of  deafness ; 
and 

Whereas,  There  are  many  cases  of  persons  who  are 
not  really  deaf,  but  hearing  people,  who  prey  on  the 
sympathy  of  the  public  to  the  injury  of  the  respectable 
and  self-supporting  deaf;  therefore  be  it 

Resolved,  That  it  is  the  sense  of  the  Association  that 
stringent  laws  should  be  enacted,  making  it  a  penal 
offense  to  ask  pecuniary  aid  on  account  of  deafness  or 
on  pretense  of  being  "  deaf  and  dumb." 

Only  very  rarely,  however,  has  legal  cognizance 
been  taken  of  this  evil,  though  it  may  some- 
times be  included  under  the  general  charge  of 
"  vagrancy  "  or  "  imposture."  In  a  few  states 
there  have  been  special  enactments,  as  in  New 
York  ^  and  Minnesota,^  in  the  former  the  im- 
personation of  a  deaf  man  being  expressly  added 
to  the  offenses  that  constitute  imposture,  and  in 
the  latter  to  those  that  constitute  vagrancy. 

Homes  for  the  Deaf 

Homes  for  the  deaf  in  America  have  never 
been  organized  on  other  than  a  small  scale,  and 
in  the  main  they  may  be  said  to  serve  a  purpose 
similar  to  that  of  homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm 

*Rev.  Stat.,  1896,  p.  1242.  See  also  Annals,  xxxi.,  1886, 
p.  295.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  seem  that  such  statutes  as 
that  in  Pennsylvania  which  we  have  noted,  exempting  the  deaf 
from  the  provisions  against  tramps,  would  lend  encourage- 
ment to  alms-seeking. 

^Laws,  1911,  p.  356.  The  law  in  this  state  was  secured  by 
the  action  of  the  deaf. 


86  THE  DEAF 

generally.  Though  there  is  little  call  for  such 
establishments  to  a  wide  extent,  and  though  the 
proportion  of  the  deaf  to  be  benefited  by  them 
is  small/  yet  for  a  number  of  the  deaf  there  is 
a  peculiar  need.  These  are  deaf  persons,  usually 
the  old  and  decrepit,  who  are  without  means 
to  support  themselves,  and  have  no  family  or 
friends  to  look  to  for  help.  To  them  a  special 
retreat  in  association  with  others  in  similar  con- 
dition proves  an  immeasurable  blessing,  and  in 
such  their  last  years  may  be  spent  in  tranquillity 
and  comparative  happiness. 

The  object  of  a  home  for  the  deaf  is  thus  given 
for  one  of  them.^ 

To  take  care  of  such  of  the  deaf  of  the  state  as  are  in- 
capacitated by  reason  of  old  age  or  other  infirmity  from 
taking  care  of  themselves,  to  the  end  that  they  may  have 
the  comforts  of  a  home,  where  they  can  associate  with 
each  other,  and  have  the  consolation  of  religious  services 
in  their  own  language  of  signs,  instead  of  being  sent  to  a 
county  infirmary. 

The  purpose  of  another  home  is  thus  de- 
scribed: ^ 

*It  is  said  that  less  than  400,  or  less  than  one  per  cent  of 
the  entire  number  of  the  deaf,  are  in  need  of  special  homes. 
Proceedings  of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  ix.,  1910,  p. 
51. 

'Report  of  Ohio  Home  for  Aged  and  Infirm  Deaf,  1912, 
p.  15. 

'From  an  address  given  at  opening  of  Pennsylvania  Home 
for  the  Deaf,  1902.  On  the  objects  of  a  home,  see  also  Proceed- 
ings of  Reunion  of  Alumni  of  Wisconsin  School  for  the  Deaf, 
vii.,  1895,  p.  10. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  87 

Thishome  is  unique,  being  the  only  institution  of  its 
kind  in  the  state,  owned  and  controlled  by  the  deaf,  who 
have  formed  themselves  into  an  association,  known  as 
the  Pennsylvania  Society  for  the  Advancement  of  the 
Deaf.  Like  our  Ohio  cousins,  who  have  already 
established  a  similar  home,  we  pride  ourselves  upon  our 
ability  to  own  and  control  such  a  responsible  institution. 
The  home  owes  its  existence  entirely  to  the  charitable 
impulse  of  the  deaf  themselves,  aided  by  the  generosity 
of  their  hearing  friends.  It  exists  because  of  the  desire 
to  provide  a  home  of  rest  for  the  infirm  of  our  class 
during  their  declining  years,  so  that  they  may  find  here 
comfort  and  happiness  in  congenial  companionship  and 
intelligent  conversation. 

At  present  there  are  five  homes  for  the  deaf .^ 
They  are  found  in  the  states  of  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania,  there  being 
two  in  New  York.^  The  first  to  be  created  was 
the  Gallaudet  Home  at  Wappinger's  Falls,  New 
York,  founded  in  1885;  the  second  the  Ohio 
Home  at  Westerville  in  1896;  the  third  the  home 

^In  three  other  states  funds  are  being  collected  to  establish 
homes:  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Missouri.  To  that  in  Indiana 
20  acres  of  land  have  been  donated.  A  private  home  was 
opened  in  New  Jersey  in  1854  for  colored  deaf,  blind  and 
crippled,  lasting  but  a  short  time,  and  having  less  than  a 
dozen  inmates.  See  Report  of  New  Jersey  School  for  the 
Deaf,  1893,  pp.  3,  7. 

^A  national  home  for  the  deaf  has  also  been  proposed. 
For  arguments  for  and  against  it,  see  Proceedings  of  National 
Association  of  the  Deaf,  ix.,  1910,  p.  51.  In  1872  such  a  home 
was  projected,  to  be  located  in  New  York  City,  some  $4,000 
being  collected  for  it.  Little  encouragement,  however,  was  met 
from  outside,  and  the  plan  was  abandoned  for  a  local  institu- 
tion. See  Report  of  Church  Mission  to  Deaf-Mutes,  1874,  p. 
18;  1875,  p.  17  ("Report  of  Committee  on  Building  and  Fund 
of  National  Home  for  the  Aged  and  Infirm  Deaf " )  ;  New 
York  Times,  Sept.  1,  1875.  See  also  International  Record  of 
Charities  and  Corrections,  June,  1886. 


88  THE  DEAF 

of  St.  Elizabeth's  Industrial  School  in  New  York 
City  in  1897 ;  the  fourth  the  New  England  Home 
at  Everett,  Massachusetts,  in  1901 ;  ^  and  the  fifth 
the  Pennsylvania  Home  at  Doyleston  in  1902. 
The  homes  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  are  owned 
and  controlled  by  the  societies  for  the  deaf  in 
these  respective  states,  the  management  being  in 
the  hands  of  trustees,  in  the  former  of  twenty, 
and  in  the  latter  of  nine.  The  Gallaudet  Home  is 
under  the  Church  Mission  to  Deaf-Mutes  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  with  the  direction 
vested  in  a  board  of  twenty-five  trustees.  The 
home  in  Massachusetts  is  controlled  by  a  private 
society  organized  for  the  purpose,  with  a  board 
of  fifteen  trustees  in  charge.  The  home  in  New 
York  City  is  a  part  of  St.  Elizabeth's  Industrial 
School  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.^ 

The  homes  are  for  the  most  part  for  the  deaf 
of  restricted  areas,  those  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio  being  for  the  deaf  in  these  respective  states. 
With  but  one  exception,^  they  are  open  to  the 
"  aged  and  infirm,"  in  some  there  being  an  age 
limitation  of  sixty  years.  The  homes  are  in  gen- 
eral free  to  those  qualified  to  enter,  and  though 
a  charge  may  be  exacted  from  persons  able  to 
pay,  this  is  seldom  done,  the  homes  being  intended 
for  the  destitute  and  friendless. 

*This  home  was  at  Roxbury  till  1905. 
'  In  one  or  two  cases  there  are  ladies'  auxiliary  societies. 
"The  home  in  New  York  City  receives  only  women  from 
sixteen  to  fifty  years  of  age. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITION  89 

The  total  number  of  inmates  in  the  homes  is 
106,  ranging  in  different  ones  from  13  to  30,  and 
averaging  about  20.  The  total  annual  cost  of 
maintenance  is  $30,190,  making  the  average  cost 
of  each  inmate  $290/  The  value  of  the  property 
of  the  homes  is  about  $375,000,  one  home  having 
two-thirds  of  this,  and  two  homes  four-fifths. 

As  little  is  received  in  the  way  of  pay  from 
inmates,^  the  homes  have  to  depend  for  the  most 
part  upon  private  benevolence  for  their  support. 
In  the  case  of  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  homes 
this  support  comes  largely  from  the  deaf  them- 
selves.^ In  nearly  all  the  homes  there  are  a  cer- 
tain number  of  inmates,  but  usually  a  very  small 
number,  cared  for  at  public  expense.  Private 
contributions  to  the  homes  are  seldom  large, 
though  in  one  case  these  have  amounted  to  a  con- 
siderable sum.*  They  usually  range  from  three 
or  four  thousand  dollars  a  year  to  several  times  as 
much.^ 

*One  home  is  exceptionally  provided  for,  however.  With- 
out it  the  average  is  $252. 

^  In  1903  the  amount  from  pay  inmates  was  $1,600.  Special 
Report  of  the  Census.  Benevolent  Institutions,  1904.  The 
nominal  charge  is  usually  $250. 

3  Over  $3,000  was  contributed  by  the  deaf  of  Ohio  for  the 
establishment  of  a  home  in  this  state. 

*The  Gallaudet  Home  has  an  endowment  fund  of  $153,150, 
of  which  $107,000  came  from  one  legacy. 

^  See  Appendix  A  for  table  in  respect  to  the  homes  for  the 
deaf.  In  connection  with  the  scheme  of  homes  for  the  deaf,  it 
is  interesting  to  note  that  there  have  been  one  or  two  sug- 
gestions for  colonies  for  them,  though  such  have  never  been 
taken  seriously.  One  was  by  a  deaf  man  in  1860  in  the  form 
of  a  memorial  to  Congress  for  the  creation  of  a  deaf-mute 
commonwealth.     See  Annals,  viii.,  1856,  p.  118;  x.,  1858,  pp. 


90  THE  DEAF 

Conclusions  with  Respect  to  the  Economic  Posi- 
tion OF  THE  Deaf 

From  all  the  foregoing  we  may  conclude  the 
following  with  respect  to  the  economic  position 
of  the  deaf : 

1.  The  deaf  are  not  a  burden  upon  the  com- 
munity. 

2.  They  are  wage-earners  in  a  degree  that 
compares  well  with  the  general  population. 

3.  The  occupations  open  to  them  and  in  which 
they  are  successfully  employed  are  much  larger 
in  number  than  is  generally  thought,  and  in 
many  their  infirmity  is  very  little  of  a  drawback. 

4.  The  deaf  hold  themselves  on  an  economic 
equality  with  the  rest  of  their  fellow-citizens,  and 
ask  no  alms  or  favors  of  any  kind. 

5.  Beyond  homes  for  certain  of  the  aged  and 
infirm,  which  are  called  for  in  not  a  few  quarters, 
the  deaf  stand  in  need  of  little  distinctive 
economic  treatment  from  society. 

40,  72,  136 ;  xxix.,  1884,  p.  73.  See  also  "  Facts  and  Opinions 
Relating  to  the  Deaf  from  America  ",  1892,  p.  182 ;  Proceed- 
ings of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  i.,  1880,  pp.  36-39. 
Farm  colonies  on  a  small  scale  for  poor  deaf-mutes  have  also 
been  considered  occasionally,  but  little  further  has  ever  been 
attempted.  See  Deaf-Mutes'  Journal,  Aug.  8,  1912;  Sept.  12, 
1912. 


CHAPTER  V 

SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  DEAF 

Social  Cleavage  from  the  General  Population 

THE  preceding  chapter  has  dealt  with  the 
economic  possibihties  of  the  deaf,  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  stand  alongside  the 
population  generally.  The  other  side  of  the 
shield  in  relation  of  the  deaf  to  society  is  now  to 
be  presented,  that  is,  how  far  their  want  of  hear- 
ing will  count  in  their  participation  in  the  social 
life  of  the  community. 

While  the  deaf  man  may  be  an  active  com- 
ponent in  the  economic  and  industrial  life  of 
society,  yet  his  inability  to  hear  and  his  frequently 
consequent  inability  to  speak  stand  in  the  way 
of  his  prompt  and  continuous  partaking  in  its 
social  life.  He  may,  and  does,  have  many  friends 
among  his  neighbors  and  acquaintances,  but  in 
the  discourse  between  man  and  man  which  forms 
such  a  large  part  of  the  interest  and  delight  in 
living,  he  is  unable  to  join.  There  is  usually  at 
hand  no  ready  and  rapid  means  of  communica- 
tion as  there  is  between  two  hearing  persons  in 
conversation,  and  his  intercourse  must  necessarily 

91 


92  THE  DEAF 

be  slow  and  tedious.  The  privileges  of  his  church 
he  cannot  enjoy;  in  his  lodge  he  misses  the  fel- 
lowship which  is  one  of  its  fundamental  ends ;  in 
few  forms  of  convivial  entertainment  can  he  take 
part.  Thus  seeking  an  outlet  for  those  social  in- 
stincts which  charge  through  his  being,  the  deaf 
man  finds  himself  among  men,  but  as  though  sur- 
rounded by  a  great  impenetrable  wall  against 
which  their  voices  break  in  vain. 

Placed,  however,  with  his  deaf  fellows,  he  dis- 
covers himself  in  a  different  situation.  He  soon 
learns  that  by  the  use  of  that  language  of  signs  so 
largely  employed  by  other  deaf  men,  and  of  which 
he  in  a  short  time  becomes  master,  he  is  able  to 
converse  with  an  ease  and  quickness  fully  as  great 
as  by  that  means  of  which  he  has  been  deprived. 
Hence  he  ceases  in  large  measure  to  carry  on  his 
social  intercourse  with  the  hearing,  and  turns  to 
his  deaf  comrades;  in  them  he  builds  up  an  ap- 
proximately congenial  companionship  and  fellow- 
ship, and  to  them  he  looks  largely  for  his  means 
of  social  diversion.  With  them  he  feels  a  close 
bond  of  sympathy,  and  is  moved  to  co-operate 
with  them,  and  to  stand  with  them  when  their 
mutual  interests  are  concerned.  In  time  associa- 
tions in  various  forms  come  to  be  organized 
among  them.  In  such  wise  is  realized  the  desire 
of  the  deaf  as  of  all  men  to  commune  with  their 
fellows. 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  93 

Desirability    of    Organizations    Composed    of    the 

Deaf 

By  some  people  societies  or  organizations  com- 
posed exclusively  of  the  deaf  have  been  opposed, 
or  at  least  looked  upon  with  disfavor.  This  is 
because  it  has  been  felt  that  it  is  not  well  for  the 
deaf  to  form  a  class  apart  in  the  community,  and 
that  unless  discouraged  the  practice  will  cause 
intermarriage  among  the  deaf,  which  may  result 
in  an  increasing  number  of  deaf  people — a  mat- 
ter to  which  we  have  already  given  attention. 

But  in  combating  this  tendency  of  the  deaf 
to  organize  among  themselves,  we  are  really  un- 
mindful of  an  elemental  sociological  principle, 
that  like-minded  persons  are  prone  to  congre- 
gate, and  will  seek  to  form  purposive  societies 
and  associations,  exemplified  as  well  in  a  boys' 
athletic  club,  in  a  church  sewing  circle,  in  a  lodge 
of  free  and  accepted  masons,  as  in  a  "  league  of 
elect  surds."  ^  If  "  clannishness  "  is  the  outcome, 
it  must  be  accepted  only  as  the  necessary  conse- 
quence of  the  infirmity  of  the  deaf,  in  the  prac- 
tical affairs  of  life  such  men  being  bound  to  seek 
out  and  associate  with  others  of  like  condition. 
By  the  deaf  themselves  it  is  claimed  that  the 
good  readily  outweighs  the  possible  evils,  and 
that,  as  the  fact  of  their  deafness  forbids  them 
belonging  generally  to  societies  for  the  hearing, 

*  The  deat  ai:e  not  usually  eligible  to  regulai:  secret  order^^ 


94  THE  DEAF 

they  are  thus  forced  to  band  together,  or  almost 
entirely  to  go  without  the  social  amalgamations 
which  form  such  a  conspicuous  and  valuable  part 
of  hfe.^ 

PuEPosEs,  Activities  and  Extent  of  Such 
Organizations 

The  organizations  of  the  deaf  are  of  several 
kinds:  termed  clubs,  leagues,  societies,  associa- 
tions and  the  like ;  and  wherever  a  number  of  deaf 
persons  are  congregated,  some  such  organization 
is  likely  to  be  effected.^  In  large  cities  not  a  few 
may  be  found,  planned  perhaps  on  different  lines 
or  appealing  to  different  kinds  of  people.  The 
majority  of  the  societies  are  formed  for  the 
mutual  pleasure  and  culture  of  the  members.^    A 

*Oii  the  subject  of  societies  of  the  deaf,  see  Annals,  xviil., 
1873,  pp.  200,  255;  xxL,  1876,  p.  137;  xxxii.,  1887,  p.  246; 
xxxiiL,  1888,  p.  28 ;  xlix.,  1904,  p.  369 ;  Proceedings  of  Conven- 
tion of  American  Instructors,  ix.,  1878,  p.  117;  National  As- 
sociation of  the  Deaf,  ii.,  1883,  p.  12 ;  iv.,  1893,  pp.  25,  40 ;  vii., 
1904,  p.  132;  viiL,  1907,  p.  26;  Reunion  of  Alumni  of  Wisconsin 
School  for  the  Deaf,  v.,  1888,  p.  36;  Empire  State  Association 
of  Deaf -Mutes,  xiiL,  1890.,  p.  12;  Deaf-Mutes'  Friend,  Aug., 
1869.  See  also  E.  A.  Hodgson,  "  The  Deaf  and  Dumb ;  Facts, 
Anecdotes  and  Poetry",  1891;  J.  E.  Gallaher,  "Representative 
Deaf  Persons  in  the  United  States  ",  1898 ;  International  Re- 
view, ii.,  1875,  p.  471. 

'  The  oldest  organization  of  the  deaf  now  existing  is  the  New 
England  Gallaudet  Association  of  the  Deaf,  which  began  in 
1853,  It  resulted  largely  from  the  Gallaudet  Memorial  As- 
sociation, organized  two  years  before  to  raise  funds  for  a 
monument  to  Thomas  Hopkins  Gallaudet.  In  1859  was  created 
the  Alumni  Association  of  the  High  Class  of  the  New  York 
Institution;  in  1865  the  Empire  State  Association;  and  in 
1870  the  Ohio  Alumni  Association.  See  Proceedings  of  Na- 
tional Association  of  the  Deaf,  iv.,  1893,  p.  25. 

*  Some  of  these  have  special  club  rooms  for  social  and  liter- 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  95 

part  are  organized  on  fraternal  principles,  some 
with  benefit  features,  paying  out  so  much  in  case 
of  illness  and  the  like;  while  in  a  few  a  certain 
amount  of  relief  may  be  dispensed*  to  those  dis- 
covered to  be  in  need.  In  most  of  the  societies, 
as  with  the  body  of  the  deaf  generally,  there  is 
a  considerable  amount  of  solidarity,  and  the  mem- 
bers are  usually  quick  to  act  in  a  common  cause 
or  to  apply  the  principle  that  the  concern  of  one 
is  the  concern  of  all/ 

While  these  societies  of  the  deaf  are  usually 
local  in  their  composition,  there  exists  more  or 
less  communication  with  bodies  in  other  cities  and 
communities.  In  over  a  fourth  of  the  states  there 
are  state  societies,  while  in  most  of  the  states 
there  are  also  alumni  associations  of  the  special 
schools,  which  are  of  state-wide  extent.^    A  na- 

ary  meetings,  where  conversation  can  be  carried  on  freely 
without  attracting  public  notice.  Some  of  these  club  rooms 
are  large  and  well  appointed.  In  not  a  few  of  the  younger  clubs 
athletics  forms  a  prominent  feature. 

^This  spirit  is  illustrated  in  many  ways,  perhaps  most 
strikingly  in  the  case  where  a  deaf  man  seems  likely  to  be 
debarred  from  some  public  position  because  of  his  want  of 
hearing,  when  the  deaf  promptly  rally  to  his  support.  We 
have  already  seen  their  action  in  connection  with  the  order  of 
the  Civil  Service  Commission.  Sometimes  candidates  for  office 
have  been  asked  to  state  their  views  on  this  subject.  As  a 
further  instance  of  mutual  assistance  among  the  deaf  may  be 
mentioned  the  raising  of  relief  funds  for  deaf  sufferers  in 
other  localities  in  times  of  some  great  disaster. 

*  In  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  the  state  societies  manage  homes 
for  the  aged  deaf,  as  we  have  seen;  and  in  Virginia  the  state 
association  supports  a  special  missionary  to  the  deaf.  In 
Pennsylvania  there  are  many  county  sections  of  the  state 
body.  In  a  number  of  centers  a  leading  association  is  that  of 
the  alumni  of  Gallaudet  College. 


96  THE  DEAF 

tional  body  is  likewise  in  existence,  the  National 
Association  of  the  Deaf,  founded  in  1880,  and  in- 
corporated in  1900;  and  there  is  a  National 
Fraternal  Society  of  the  Deaf,  with  benefits  for 
sickness,  injury  and  death,  which  has  many  local 
branches,  this  being  probably  the  largest  organi- 
zation of  the  deaf  in  the  country.^  An  interna- 
tional organization  has  also  been  formed,  known 
as  the  World's  Congress  of  the  Deaf. 

Among  the  various  associations  of  the  deaf, 
particular  mention  may  be  made  of  church  or- 
ganizations in  some  of  the  larger  cities  and  towns, 
which  not  infrequently  serve  in  some  measure  the 
purpose  of  a  social  center.  These  deaf  congrega- 
tions are  usually  in  communion  with  some  denom- 
inational body,  often  being  the  result  of  church 
"  missions  "  to  the  deaf,  and  are  ministered  to 
regularly  or  at  stated  times  by  clergymen,  most 
of  whom  are  themselves  deaf.  For  the  use  of  the 
deaf,  the  church  building  or  rooms  in  it  are  gen- 
erally given  over  at  certain  times.  In  a  few 
cases  the  deaf  are  in  possession  of  edifices  of  their 
own.^ 

*  There  has  also  frequently  been  discussion  of  a  federation 
of  the  various  state  and  local  organizations.  See  Proceedings 
of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  iii.,  1889,  p.  14 ;  ix.,  1910, 
p.  25. 

'  Such  churches  are  now  in  New  York,  Philadelphia  and 
Wheeling,  under  Protestant  Episcopal  auspices;  in  Milwaukee 
under  Lutheran;  and  in  Baltimore  under  Methodist.  Special 
church  buildings  are  also  in  contemplation  in  other  cities. 
Funds  for  these  churches  are  raised  by  the  deaf  with  the  as- 
sistance  of   their   hearing  friends.     In   the   Roman   Catholic 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  97 

Newspapers  of  the  Deaf 

With  the  deaf  there  have  been  a  number  of 
special  papers,  published  by  and  for  them,  and 
circulating  for  the  most  part  only  among  them. 
Their  chief  purpose  is  to  chronicle  the  various 
happenings  in  deaf  circles,  and  to  serve  as  a 
medium  for  the  discussion  of  matters  of  general 
interest  to  the  deaf.  These  papers  are  usually 
weeklies  or  monthlies,  more  often  the  former, 
and  frequently  have  correspondents  in  a  greater 
or  smaller  number  of  localities.  There  have  been 
not  a  few  ventures  in  the  establishment  of  such 
independent  papers,  but  most  of  them  have 
proved  short-lived  for  want  of  sufficient  support, 
some  being  of  very  brief  duration,  and  only  an 
exceptional  one  continuing  over  an  extended 
period.  As  a  rule  there  have  been  seldom 
more  than  two  or  three  in  existence  at  any 
one  time.^  In  addition,  there  have  been  several 
religious  papers  for  the  deaf,  often  under  the 
auspices  of  some  denominational  body,  but 
usually  published  by  the  deaf  themselves.    These, 

Church  there  is  a  special  organization  of  the  deaf,  founded  In 
1910,  and  known  as  the  Knights  of  1'  Ep6e. 

*  There  have  been  about  thirty  such  publications  created,  the 
first  of  which  seems  to  have  been  begun  in  1839,  and  the 
second  in  1860.  See  especially  "  Periodicals  Devoted  to  the 
Interests  of  the  Deaf,"  by  the  Volta  Bureau,  1913.  See  also 
Volta  Review,  xii.,  1910,  p.  456;  Proceedings  of  National  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Deaf,  ix.,  1910,  p.  45.  The  present  publications 
are:  the  Deaf -Mutes'  Journal,  of  New  York,  a  weekly;  the 
Observer,  of  Seattle,  a  bi-weekly;  the  Frat,  of  Chicago,  a 
monthly;  and  the  Pennsylvania  Society  News,  a  quarterly. 


98  THE  DEAF 

however,  have  never  been  numerous,  and  have 
been  of  limited  circulation.^ 

*  Those  now  existing  are:  the  Catholic  Deaf-Mute,  of  New 
York,  under  Roman  Catholic  auspices;  the  Silent  Churchman, 
of  Chicago,  under  Protestant  Episcopal;  the  Silent  Herald,  of 
Chicago,  under  Methodist;  and  the  Deaf  Lutheran,  of  Mil- 
waukee, under  Lutheran. 


CHAPTER   VI 

POPULAR   CONCEPTIONS   CONCERNING  THE 

DEAF 

Viewed  as  a  Strange  Class 

THE  position  of  the  deaf  in  society  is  yet  to 
be  seen  from  another  standpoint.  The 
question  may  be  asked.  How  does  the 
public  at  large,  how  does  "  the  man  in  the  street," 
look  upon  the  deaf?  Are  the  deaf  viewed 
merely  as  so  many  people  deprived  of  the  sense 
of  hearing,  in  whom  also  the  power  of  speech  is 
often  wanting?  Or  is  there  superimposed  upon 
this  a  feeling,  owing  perhaps  to  the  supposed 
isolation  of  the  deaf,  that  they  are  in  other  ways 
a  peculiar  class  of  beings? 

Unfortunately,  it  is  the  latter  of  these  two 
conceptions  that  is  the  prevailing  one — unfor- 
tunately for  the  deaf,  for  their  burden  is  quite 
sufficient  as  it  is.  The  public  has  been  and  is 
under  many  misapprehensions  and  delusions  re- 
garding the  deaf.  ^  Being  thrown  intimately 
with  them  but  seldom,  people  often  come  to  form 

^Very  often  in  the  public  mind  the  deaf  and  the  blind  are 
associated,  the  two  classes  sometimes  becoming  more  or  less 
merged  the  one  into  the  other,  and  the  problems  of  the  one  are 
not  infrequently  assumed  to  be  those  of  the  other.    As  a  mat- 


100  THE  DEAF 

curious  ideas  respecting  the  deaf,  but  ideas 
which  are  more  or  less  unhappy  ones.  There  is 
frequently  an  attitude  towards  them  combined  of 
wonder,  misgiving,  fear,  aversion — a  vague  feel- 
ing or  behef  that  the  deaf  are  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct in  their  thoughts  and  actions  from  other 
people,  that  they  are  somehow  "  unnatural "  or 
"  uncanny."  ^ 

Viewed  as  a  Defective  Class 
Not  only  are  the  deaf  often  looked  upon  as 
a   strange   class   in   the   community,   but   they 

ter  of  fact,  there  is  but  one  i)oint  of  similarity  in  the  two 
classes — both  are  "defective"  in  that  they  are  deprived  of  a 
most  important  physical  sense.  The  gulf  that  really  separates 
the  blind  from  the  deaf  is  far  deeper  than  that  which  lies  be- 
tween either  of  the  two  classes  and  the  normal  population. 
*In  this  connection  it  may  be  interesting  to  note  the  regard 
for  the  deaf  as  has  been  indicated  by  the  deaf  characters  that 
have  been  created  in  fiction.  Though  not  a  large  number  are 
found,  there  is  displayed  towards  them  an  attitude  largely  of 
kindly  sympathy,  in  some  cases  mingled  with  wonder.  Such 
characters  appear  in  Lew  Wallace's  "  Prince  of  India  ",  where 
three  deaf-mutes  are  instructed  to  speak;  Scott's  Fanella  in 
"Peveril  of  the  Peak";  Dickens'  Sophy  in  "Dr.  Marigold" 
(an  unusually  attractive  and  lovable  character)  ;  Collins' 
Madonna  Mary  in  "  Hide  and  Seek  " ;  Caine's  Naomi  in  "  The 
Scapegoat";  Haggard's  "She";  Maarten's  "God's  Fool";  de 
Musset's  "  Pierre  and  Camille  " ;  and  elsewhere.  Thomas  Hol- 
croft's  "  Deaf  and  Dumb ;  or  the  Orphan  Protected "  is  an 
adaptation  from  the  French  play  "  Abb§  de  1'  Epee"  of  J.  N. 
Bouilly,  in  1802,  in  which  the  founder  of  the  first  school  for 
the  deaf  and  his  pupils  are  touchingly  portrayed.  Feigned 
characters  are  also  found,  as  Scott's  mute  in  "  The  Talisman  " ; 
in  Moliere's  "  Le  M§decin  malgr§  Lui  "  ;  Jonson's  "  Epicoene  "  ; 
and  John  Poole's  "Deaf  as  a  Post".  Defoe  has  a  character, 
Duncan  Campbell,  which  is  possibly  based  on  one  from  real 
life,  being  referred  to  by  Addison  in  the  Spectator  and  the 
Tatler.  On  the  subject  of  the  deaf  in  fiction,  see  Silent 
Worker,  Dec,  1893;  Annals,  xxxix.,  1894,  p.  79;  Indiana 
Bulletin  of  Charities  and  Corrections,  June,  1897;  Athenaeum, 
Feb.,  April,  1896. 


POPULAR  C6NqEI>Tt(i>NS'  i  .  \  'i  UTOl 

are  not  uncommonly  known  as  "  defectives,"  and 
this  is  the  classification  frequently  applied  to 
them.  It  is  true  that  the  deaf  are  "  defective  " 
in  that  they  are  deprived  of  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  physical  senses;  but,  in  addition, 
the  term  often  carries  a  connotation  of  mental,  or 
even  of  moral,  aberrance,  and  results  in  the  inflic- 
tion upon  the  deaf  of  an  unnecessary  brand.  In 
many  libraries  such  a  classification  is  found,  and 
the  deaf  are  catalogued  under  the  heading  "  de- 
fective." In  the  "  Index  of  the  Economic  Ma- 
terial in  Documents  of  the  States  of  the  United 
States  "  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  the  deaf 
and  the  blind  are  grouped  as  "  defectives  "  along 
with  the  feeble-minded  and  consumptives.^ 
Though  in  such  a  classification,  any  untoward 
signification  is  disclaimed,  and  it  is  held  to  be 
merely  one  of  convenience  of  arrangement,  it  re- 
mains true  that  terms  are  employed  and  associa- 
tions involved  that  to  a  certain  extent  do  a  very 
real  injury  to  the  deaf.^ 

*It  may  be  recorded  here  that  in  the  present  compilation  of 
the  Bibliography  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
the  expression  formerly  used,  "  Delinquents,  Dependents  and 
Defectives  ",  has  been  dropped  in  favor  of  the  term,  "  Special 
Classes  of  Persons".  On  this  subject,  see  Proceedings  of 
National  Educational  Association,  1901,  p.  876. 

*A  possibly  more  serious  misapprehension  respecting  the 
deaf  arises  from  the  impression  often  current  among  a  large 
number  of  people,  and  apparently  encouraged  not  infre- 
quently in  the  proceedings  of  some  scientific  bodies,  to  the 
effect  that  nearly  all  deaf-mutes  are  so  either  because  of  a  sim- 
ilar condition  in  their  parents  or  because  of  the  existence  in 
the  parents  of  some  physical  disease,  sometimes  of  an  immoral 


lOiv^   -'K*"         .THE  DEAF 

Viewed  as  an  Unhappy  Cu^-ss 

People  are  also  prone  to  think  of  the  deaf  as  an 
unhappy,  morose  or  dejected  class.  Professor 
E.  T.  Devine  in  his  "  Misery  and  its  Causes  " 
(1909)  ^  enumerates  the  deaf,  among  other 
classes,  as  embodiments  of  misery — "  not  for  the 
most  part,"  he  is  careful  to  state,  "  personally 
unhappy,"  but  rather  with  reference  to  their  im- 
perfect senses.  This  view  is  clear  enough,  and  in 
one  sense  is  doubtless  correct;  but  it  does  not 

character.  This  is  in  a  great  part  due  to  the  increasing  empha- 
sis upon  eugenics,  with  the  desire  to  weed  out  from  the  popula- 
tion as  many  as  possible  of  the  "  unfit "  or  "  defective  ".  In 
consequence  has  been  the  belief  that  if  there  were  proper  regu- 
lation of  certain  marriages,  especially  of  the  deaf  and  of 
others  suffering  from  particular  maladies,  "  deaf-mutism ", 
which  is  looked  upon  as  an  excrescence  upon  society,  would 
In  the  course  of  a  short  time  be  stamped  out.  An  illustration 
of  this  conception  is  the  following  extract  from  the  Handbook 
of  the  Child  Welfare  Exhibit  held  in  New  York  in  1911  (p. 
38)  :  "  Mating  of  the  Unfit.  '  The  Law '.  Marriages  of  cousins, 
Insane  or  feeble-minded,  alcoholic,  syphilitic  parents  and 
effects.  The  cost— 7,369  blind  infants,  89,287  deaf  and  dumb, 
18,476  feeble-minded ".  See  also  Proceedings  of  National 
Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections,  1912,  p.  277;  Report 
of  Philadelphia  Baby  Saving  Show,  1912,  p.  37;  Annals,  Ivii., 
1912,  p.  284.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
the  question  of  deafness  is  not  one  so  much  of  eugenics  as  of 
medical  science,  although  eugenics  may  well  be  called  in  play 
in  respect  to  the  marriages  of  persons  under  unfavorable  con- 
ditions, including  to  an  extent  the  congenitally  deaf  and  those 
having  deaf  relatives.  The  total  number  of  the  deaf,  how- 
ever, marrying  under  unfavorable  conditions,  is  not  large. 
Every  effort  to  remove  or  diminish  deafness  is  entitled  only 
to  the  highest  praise;  but  when  it  is  made  to  appear  that 
deafness  generally  results  from  such  causes  as  are  often 
ascribed,  it  is  seen  how  wrongly  the  deaf,  upon  whom  a  great 
affliction  is  already  resting,  may  be  made  to  suffer. 

^  P.  45.  See  also  Proceedings  of  Empire  State  Association  of 
Deaf-Mutes,  xii.,  1888,  p.  35 ;  National  Conference  of  Charities 
and  Corrections,  1883,  p.  416. 


POPULAR  CONCEPTIONS  103 

express  the  entire  situation  in  respect  to  the  deaf. 
While  their  deafness  must  always  be  a  serious 
and  distressing  affliction,  and  even  handicap  and 
burden  as  well,  and  while  the  deaf  must  often 
bemoan  their  fate,  it  yet  seems  to  be  true  that 
the  deaf  as  a  lot  are  not  "  unhappy."  They  are 
good-natured,  see  the  world  from  an  odd  angle 
sometimes,  yet  are  as  much  philosophers  as  the 
average  man;  and  when  in  the  company  of  their 
deaf  associates  are  able  to  derive  fully  as  large  a 
portion  of  happiness  as  any  other  group  of  human 
beings.  The  deaf  are  cheerful,  swayed  by  the 
same  emotions  as  other  mortals,  responsive 
equally  to  all  the  touches  of  life,  and  are  not,  at 
least  in  these  days  of  education,  a  morbid,  brood- 
ing, passionate  folk,  as  is  too  often  the  popular 
judgment. 

Viewed  as  a  Dependent  Class 

In  some  quarters  the  deaf  continue  to  be  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  dependent  classes  of  society. 
Mr.  Robert  Hunter  in  his  "  Poverty  "  (1904)  ' 
under  the  head  of  "  Dependents  and  their  Treat- 
ment "  places  the  deaf  and  dumb  as  "  absolute 
dependents."  Such  views,  however,  are  no 
longer  general,  the  deaf  having  themselves  dem- 

*P.  76.  See  also  p.  96.  Similarly  Professor  C.  R.  Hender- 
son in  his  "Dependents,  Defectives  and  Delinquents"  says 
(p.  170)  :  "Many  of  the  deaf  and  blind  are  so  deficient  in  in- 
dustrial efficiency,  owing  to  their  infirmity,  that  they  must  be 
cared  for  in  adult  life  and  old  age  ". 


104  THE  DEAF 

onstrated  to  what  extent  they  are  a  self-support- 
ing part  of  the  community.  But  where  this  be- 
lief is  still  shared,  the  deaf  are  thought  in  many 
cases  to  be  in  need  of  aid  or  public  charity;  or  at 
any  rate  to  be  economically  inferior  to  the  rest 
of  society.  Deaf  pupils  in  the  schools,  for  in- 
stance, are  often  referred  to  as  "  inmates  "or  even 
as  "  patients,"  not  only  by  the  public  but  by  news- 
papers as  well;  and  the  schools  themselves  are 
often  spoken  of  as  "  asylums  "  or  as  charitable  in- 
stitutions.^ This  nomenclature  is  hardly  de- 
fensible on  any  ground,  and  by  it  the  education 
of  the  deaf  is  not  even  given  its  true  status. 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  general  feel- 
ing, though  rather  of  different  order,  may 
perhaps  be  cited  the  attitude  of  the  general  in- 
surance companies  toward  the  deaf.  Though 
some  of  the  companies  accept  the  deaf  at  their 
regular  rates,  a  nimiber  refuse  them  altogether, 
while  others  limit  their  liability  or  demand  an  ex- 
tra premium.^    This  is  largely  because  of  the  fear 

*Iii  the  special  census  report  of  Benevolent  Institutions  of 
1904  schools  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind  are  included,  because 
they  contain  "  free  homes  for  care  and  maintenance ".  In 
some  charity  directories  schools  for  the  deaf  are  listed. 

'It  is  claimed  that  95  per  cent  of  the  general  fraternal 
organizations  consider  the  deaf  as  "  hazardous  "  or  "  undesir- 
able". Proceedings  of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  ix., 
1910,  p.  53.  Accident  insurance  is  usually  refused  by  all. 
When  an  extra  rate  is  charged  in  life  insurance,  this  is  usually 
one-half  of  one  per  cent.  On  the  subject  of  insurance  and  the 
mortality  of  the  deaf,  see  Annals,  xxxiii,,  18S8,  p.  246;  xlix., 
1904,  p.  274;  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American  In- 
structors, ii.,  1851,  p.  168 ;  iii.,  1853,  p.  85 ;  xi.,  1886,  p.  67 ;  Em- 


POPULAR  CONCEPTIONS  105 

that  the  deaf  are  more  liable  to  accidents  than 
other  people;  but  in  point  of  fact  the  deaf  seem 
to  be  a  long-lived  people,  and  it  is  likely  that  with 
greater  statistical  knowledge  concerning  them, 
most  of  the  discrimination  would  cease.^ 

Need  of  a  Changed  Regard  for  the  Deaf 

Thus  in  many  ways  are  the  deaf  made  to  suf- 
fer from  popular  misconceptions,  and  quite  un- 
necessarily. Too  long  have  designations  been 
employed  regarding  them  that  call  up  unde- 
served associations.  Too  long  have  they  been  set 
down  as  a  strange  and  uncertain  body  of  human 
beings,  removed  in  their  actions,  manners  and 
modes  of  thought  from  the  rest  of  society.  The 
interests  of  the  deaf  require  a  different  considera- 
tion and  treatment.    They  demand  that  the  deaf 

plre  State  Association  of  Deaf -Mutes,  xii.,  1888,  p.  35;  xiii., 
1890,  p.  30;  xvi.,  1894,  p.  28;  xix.,  1897,  p.  93;  National  As- 
sociation of  the  Deaf,  ii.,  1883,  p.  12 ;  vii.,  1904,  p.  183 ;  Report 
of  New  York  Institution,  1853,  p.  70. 

^The  foregoing  illustrate  some  of  the  most  striking  miscon- 
ceptions regarding  the  deaf.  On  the  other  hand,  no  doubt  the 
deaf  as  well  as  the  blind  suffer  from  sentiment  on  the  part  of 
the  public,  and  from  the  sensational  accounts  which  appear 
from  time  to  time  in  the  newspapers  and  magazines  concerning 
what  the  deaf  have  been  found  able  to  accomplish.  Many- 
things  are  referred  to  as  "  wonders ",  as  though  it  were 
strange  that  they  could  be  done  by  people  without  hearing, 
some  of  the  achievements  of  the  deaf  being  set  down  as  most 
remarkable.  Such  writings  are  usually  in  a  Mndly  spirit,  and 
may  often  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  making  known  the  simi- 
larity of  the  capabilities  of 'the  deaf  and  of  the  hearing;  but 
when  they  make  the  deaf  appear  as  a  peculiar  and  unlike  part 
of  the  race,  their  effect  may  be  most  misleading.  The  worst 
result  is  that  the  public  becomes  ready  and  willing  to  believe 
almost  any  thing  about  the  deaf. 


106  THE  DEAF 

be  regarded  exactly  as  other  people,  only  unable 
to  hear.  Theirs  will  be  a  great  boon  when  they 
are  looked  upon  no  more  as  a  distinct  and  dif- 
ferent portion  of  the  race,  but  entirely  as  normal 
creatures,  equally  capable  and  human  as  all  other 
men.^ 

*  In  1908  the  Convention  of  American  Instructors  of  the  Deaf 
appointed  a  committee  to  consider  the  question  of  the  dis- 
semination of  knowledge  regarding  the  attainments  of  the 
deaf.    Proceedings,  xviiL,  p.  210. 


^ 


CHAPTER  VII 

PRIVATE   ORGANIZATIONS   INTERESTED  IN 
THE  DEAF 

General  Societies  Interested  in  the  Deaf 

WE  have  now  considered  the  interest  of 
society  in  the  deaf  in  its  several  rela- 
tions, together  with  the  treatment  that 
has  been  extended  to  them.  It  remains  to  be  noted 
whether  there  have  been  any  private  undertak- 
ings organized  in  behalf  of  the  deaf  or  interested 
in  their  welfare,  and  what  has  been  done  by  such 
bodies. 

In  America  virtually  the  only  organizations 
composed  of  persons  not  deaf  and  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  advancing  the  interests  of  the  deaf 
have  been  those  more  or  less  closely  related  to  the 
education  of  deaf  children,  and  with  their  excep- 
tion practically  no  movements  in  respect  to  the 
deaf  may  be  said  to  have  been  undertaken.^ 

These  organizations  interested  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf  are  of  two  divisions:  bodies 
actively  engaged  in  the  work  of  this  instruction, 

*  General  organizations  of  a  philanthropic  or  other  character 
have  seldom  extended  activities  to  include  the  deaf,  though  at 
times  some  institution,  as  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associ- 
ation or  a  social  settlement,  has  manifested  an  interest,  chiefly 
in  providing  a  place  for  meeting. 

107 


108  THE  DEAF 

and  bodies  only  indirectly  concerned.  The  first 
division  includes,  on  the  one  hand,  associations  of 
instructors  of  the  deaf,  and,  on  the  other,  societies 
or  corporations  formed  to  promote  and  establish 
schools,  which  have  either  passed  out  of  existence, 
their  mission  being  fulfilled,  on  the  taking  over 
of  the  school  by  the  state,  or  have  remained  in 
control  of  certain  schools — to  be  considered  when 
we  come  to  the  general  provisions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  deaf.  In  the  second  division  are  three 
kinds  of  organizations:  the  Volta  Bureau,  an 
organization  in  a  class  of  its  own;  associations  of 
parents  concerned  mainly  with  the  instruction  of 
their  own  children;  and  undertakings  interested 
in  the  extension  of  religious  knowledge  to  the 
deaf,  usually  in  the  form  of  church  missions. 

The  Volta  Bureau 

The  one  organization  in  America  of  large  com- 
pass and  concerned  solely  with  the  interests  of 
the  deaf  is  the  Volta  Bureau,  located  in  Washing- 
ton. This  has  resulted  from  the  gift  of  Dr,  Alex- 
ander Graham  Bell  in  1880,  who  having  received 
50,000  francs  from  the  French  government  in 
recognition  of  his  services  in  the  field  of  invention, 
decided  to  use  the  money  to  establish  the  bureau 
for  the  "  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  re- 
lating to  the  deaf."  The  bureau  now  contains 
much  information  regarding  the  deaf  as  a  class, 
as  well  as  carefully  compiled  data  regarding 


PRIVATE  SOCIETIES  109 

many  individuals;  and  also  publishes  works  on 
the  deaf,  including  the  "  Volta  Review,"  a 
monthly  periodical.  It  is  much  interested  in  the 
methods  of  instruction  of  the  deaf,  while  another 
important  aim  may  be  said  to  be  the  elimination 
of  deafness  as  far  as  possible,  or  the  removal  of 
many  of  the  effects  of  deafness.  Dr.  Bell's  total 
benefactions  to  this  bureau,  together  with  the  As- 
sociation to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to 
the  Deaf,  to  which  it  is  now  joined,  have 
amounted  to  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million 
dollars.^ 

Parents'  Associations  fob  the  Deaf 

Associations  of  parents  have  been  organized 
chiefly  in  relation  to  the  education  of  their  own 
deaf  children,  though  in  some  cases  friends  as 
well  as  parents  are  included.  They  have  often 
been  particularly  concerned  in  the  creation  of 
day  schools  for  the  deaf,  but  have  also  shown  an 
interest  in  other  ways.^    These  associations  have 

*The  bureau  contains  a  card  catalogue  of  more  than  50,000 
deaf  children  who  have  been  in  the  special  schools  from  1817 
to  1900;  authentic  manuscript  respecting  4,471  marriages  of 
the  deaf;  and  the  special  schedules  of  the  census  of  1900  re- 
specting the  deaf.  It  serves,  moreover,  as  a  bureau  of  infor- 
mation and  advice,  with  suggestions  for  the  hard  of  hearing 
also,  and  as  a  teachers'  agency.  On  the  work  of  the  bureau, 
see  Deaf -Mute  Advance,  of  Illinois  School,  March  14,  1891; 
Silent  Worker,  May,  1895;  and  current  numbers  of  the  Volta 
Review,  especially  that  for  Jan.,  1913  (xiv.,  p.  605). 

^The  purpose  of  the  Boston  Parents'  Education  Association 
for  Deaf  Children  is  "  to  encourage  home  instruction,  aid 
schools  for  the  deaf  in  Boston,  help  deaf  children  to  continue 


110  THE  DEAF 

been  mostly  confined  to  cities,  and  have  been  or- 
ganized in  a  dozen  or  so  of  them,  as  Boston, 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Detroit,  Milwau- 
kee, St.  Paul,  New  York,  Los  Angeles,  and  San 
Francisco/  State  associations  have  been  rare, 
being  found  in  only  two  or  three  states,  as  Ohio, 
Wisconsin  and  Nebraska,^ 

Chuech  Missions  to  the  Deaf 

Practically  all  the  religious  denominations  have 
shown  more  or  less  concern  in  the  spiritual  wel- 
fare of  the  deaf,  so  far  as  individuals  have  been 
affected,  and  many  churches  have  deaf  members 
on  their  rolls.  Some  of  the  church  bodies  have, 
in  addition,  given  more  particular  attention  to 
the  deaf,  and  have  instituted  special  activities  to 
embrace  as  many  of  them  as  possible.  Such 
movements  have  their  greatest  opportunities  in 

their  education  in  schools  or  colleges  for  hearing  persons,  aid 
them  in  acquiring  a  practical  knowledge  of  useful  trades  and 
business,  assist  them  in  obtaining  remunerative  employment, 
bring  them  into  more  extensive  social  relations  with  hearing 
persons,  and  employ  such  other  means  for  their  advancement 
as  may  be  deemed  advisable."  See  "  Offering  in  behalf  of  the 
Deaf",  by  this  association,  1903,  p.  8.  See  also  Association 
Review,  ii.,  1900,  p.  146.  Most  of  the  associations  have  also 
been  interested  in  the  employment  of  the  oral  method  of  in- 
struction. Dues  in  such  associations  are  usually  only  one  or 
two  dollars,  and  there  is  often  a  board  of  directors  appointed. 

^  The  first  seems  to  have  been  the  Boston  Association,  formed 
in  1894. 

^  In  several  of  these  associations  membership  is  over  a  hun- 
dred. In  Milwaukee  there  is  also  a  similar  society  known  as 
the  Wisconsin  Phonological  Institute  to  Promote  the  Teaching 
of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  which  was  organized  in  1878,  and  in- 
corporated in  1879,  as  a  philanthropic  society.  See  Report, 
1878,  p.  5. 


PRIVATE  SOCIETIES  111 

the  cities,  where  it  is  easier  to  reach  the  deaf  than 
in  the  scattered  districts  of  the  country,  though 
some  efforts  have  been  made  there  too.  On 
the  whole,  however,  only  a  small  part  of  the  re- 
ligious duty  towards  the  deaf  is  found  to  have 
been  done;  and  it  remains  beyond  question  that 
they  have  been  neglected  in  this  regard  far  too 
much,  and  that  there  is  indeed  a  field  "  white 
unto  the  harvest "  for  the  spiritual  well-being  of 
the  deaf.  Perhaps  also  there  is  no  sphere  of  re- 
ligious endeavor  where  the  need  of  mutual  un- 
derstanding and  co-operation  is  so  manifest  as 
with  the  deaf. 

The  denominations  that  have  taken  special 
action  usually  maintain  what  are  called  "  mis- 
sions to  the  deaf,"  and  have  clergymen,  both  deaf 
and  hearing,  who  give  part  or  all  of  their  time  to 
the  work.  In  a  few  of  the  larger  cities,  as  we 
have  seen,  special  churches  for  the  deaf  have  been 
organized,  supported  with  the  aid  of  the  denomi- 
national body,  while  in  other  cases  the  use  of  the 
church  building  is  allowed  to  the  deaf  at  certain 
times.  Visits  are  also  made  from  time  to  time 
to  smaller  places  when  a  number  of  deaf  people 
may  be  assembled  together,  and  special  meetings 
are  arranged  for  them.^    In  such  missions,  while 

*  On  the  subject  of  church  work  among  the  deaf,  see  Pro- 
ceedings of  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  i.,  1880,  p.  19 ;  iv., 
1893,  p.  53 ;  vi.,  1899,  p.  58 ;  vii.,  1904,  p.  153 ;  Empire  State  As- 
sociation of  Deaf -Mutes,  xii.,  1888,  p.  31;  Conference  on 
Church    Work    among   the   Deaf    (Protestant    Episcopal),    i., 


112  THE  DEAF 

the  aims  are  largely  spiritual,  there  are  often  in 
addition  operations  of  a  material  character,  with 
appropriate  attention  to  individual  cases  of 
need/ 

Among  Protestant  Churches,  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  may  .be  considered  the  pioneer,  and 
it  has  taken  up  the  work  with  considerable 
zeal  and  effectiveness.  In  1850  work  was  begun 
in  the  East,  and  in  1871  formally  organized.  In 
1873  it  was  extended  to  the  Mid- west,  and  in  1875 
to  the  North-west  and  South-west.  In  a  number 
of  the  dioceses  the  work  is  now  given  attention,  in 
some  of  the  large  cities,  as  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia and  Chicago,  its  labor  being  notable.^  The 
Lutheran  Church  has  been  active  particularly  in 
some  of  the  states  of  the  Middle  West,  as  in  the 
synods  of  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  others,  and  in  a 
few  cities  of  the  East.  The  Methodists  have  like- 
wise been  engaged  in  certain  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, especially  in  the  South  and  in  the  Mid- west. 
The  Baptists  have  also  taken  up  work,  especially 

1881,  p.  5 ;  il,  1883,  p.  4 ;  iv.,  1887,  p.  3 ;  v.,  1888,  p.  23 ;  Report 
of  Diocesan  Commission  on  Church  Work  among  the  Deaf, 
1886;  Church  Mission  to  the  Deaf  (New  York),  1873,  p.  14; 
1886,  p.  3 ;  1888,  p.  3 ;  Annals,  xxix.,  1884,  p.  24. 

*  Dii'ect  relief  may  be  afforded  in  some  cases,  and  in  others 
visits  made  to  hospitals,  prisons  and  the  like,  where  deaf 
persons  may  be  found,  without  regard  to  religious  aflSliation. 
Assistance  is  also  often  rendered  in  acting  as  interpreters  in 
court,  though  this  work  is  frequently  shared  in  by  instructors 
of  the  deaf.  In  one  or  two  instances,  as  we  have  seen,  homes 
for  the  deaf  have  been  established  by  religious  bodies. 

^  In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  there  are  now  some 
twelve  clergymen  engaged  in  this  work,  ten  of  whom  are  deaf, 
and  more  than  twice  this  number  of  lay  helpers. 


PRIVATE  SOCIETIES  113 

in  the  South  and  in  New  England.  Together 
with  the  Congregationahsts,  they  started  action 
in  the  latter  section  in  1884,  though  most  of  the 
work  in  New  England  is  now  done  by  a  union 
organization  of  several  denominations,  called  the 
"Evangelical  Alliance."  In  other  Protestant 
bodies  little  has  been  attempted  beyond  local  un- 
dertakings in  a  few  places.  The  work  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  respect  to  the  deaf  is 
well  organized  in  a  number  of  centers,  and  many 
of  the  Catholic  deaf  are  carefully  looked  after. 
With  the  Hebrews  most  of  the  attention  has  been 
confined  to  certain  large  cities.^ 

Organizations  Interested  in  the  Education  of  the 

Deaf 

There  are  in  America  three  large  bodies  inter- 
ested in  the  education  of  the  deaf,  and  composed 
for  the  most  part  of  those  directly  connected  with 
the  work  of  education.  These  are  the  Conven- 
tion of  American  Instructors  of  the  Deaf,  the 
Conference  of  Superintendents  and  Principals, 
and  the  American  Association  to  Promote  the 
Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  all  meeting,  as 
a  usual  thing,  triennially  in  different  years.    Of 

*In  New  York  there  is  a  Society  for  the  Welfare  of  the 
Jewish  Deaf,  which  was  organized  in  1910,  and  incorporated  in 
1913.  Laws,  ch.  313.  It  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  from 
seventeen  to  thirty  governors,  and  is  interested  in  the  edu- 
cational, industrial,  social  and  religious  concerns  of  the  deaf. 
See  Hebrew  Standard,  March  15,  1912;  Jewish  Charities,  Jan,, 
1912.  See  also  Proceedings  of  National  Conference  of  Jewish 
Charities,  1908,  p.  28. 


114  THE  DEAF 

these  the  oldest  is  the  Convention  of  American 
Instructors,  which  was  organized  in  1850/  It 
is  a  large  and  representative  body,  and  has  mani- 
fested its  interest  from  the  beginning  in  the  gen- 
eral welfare  of  the  deaf,  as  well  as  in  the  particu- 
lar demands  of  education.  The  Conference  of 
Superintendents  and  Principals,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  composed  of  the  heads  of  schools,  and 
was  organized  in  1868.^  The  Association  to 
Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf  was 
incorporated  as  such  in  1890,  though  it  was  not 
the  first  body  concerned  in  this  work.^  It  is  now 
countrywide,  and  embraces  a  large  number  of 
those  interested  in  the  teaching  of  speech  to  the 
deaf,  whether  active  educators  or  not.  A  large 
section  of  its  members  are  "  pure  oralists,"  that 
is,  believing  in  the  exclusive  use  of  speech  with 
the  deaf.  In  1908  the  Volta  Bureau  was  taken 
over  by  this  body.*  It  may  be  mentioned  here 
also  that  the  educators  of  the  deaf  are  represented 
in  the  National  Educational  Association.^ 

*  Its  first  meeting  was  at  the  New  York  Institution,  after  a 
call  had  been  issued  by  several  of  the  leading  educators.  In 
1897  this  body  was  incorporated. 

'The  organization  was  effected  at  Washington.  See  Report 
of  Columbia  Institution,  1868,  p.  16. 

*A  convention  of  articulation  teachers  was  held  as  early  as 
1874.  Another  meeting  was  held  in  1884.  See  Annals,  xix., 
1874,  pp.  90,  217 ;  xxix.,  1884,  pp.  154,  237 ;  Volta  Review,  xiv., 
1913,  p.  394.  In  1894  was  formed  the  Association  to  Promote 
Auricular  Training  of  the  Deaf,  which  was  subsequently 
merged  with  the  larger  organization. 

*The  Association  has  a  board  of  fifteen  directors,  and  an 
advisory  board  of  twelve. 

°This   was   organized   in  1897.     Proceedings,   p.   36.     It  is 


PRIVATE  SOCIETIES  115 

Publications  Devoted  to  the  Interests  of  the  Deaf 
There  are  two  publications  devoted  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  deaf:  the  "American  Annals  of 
the  Deaf  "  and  the  "  Volta  Review,"  both  pub- 
lished in  Washington.  The  former  was  begun  in 
1848.  It  appears  bi-monthly,  and  is  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Conference  of  Principals.^  It  has 
long  been  known  as  the  standard  periodical  re- 
lating to  the  deaf  in  America,  and  represents 
current  thought  and  opinion  of  practical  educa- 
tors of  the  deaf,  as  well  as  constituting  a  general 
record  of  the  work.  The  "  Volta  Review,"  for- 
merly known  as  the  "  Association  Review,"  was 
begun  in  1899,  and  was  published  by  the  Associa- 
tion to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the 
Deaf.  It  is  now  published  conjointly  by  the  As- 
sociation and  the  Volta  Bureau,  and  appears  as 
.  an  illustrated  monthly.  It  is  "  devoted  to  the 
problems  of  deafness,"  but  deals  in  the  greatest 
measure  with  the  matters  pertaining  to  the  edu- 
cation of  the  deaf.^     In  most  of  the  residential 

known  as  Department  XVI,  or  the  Department  of  Special 
Education.  Both  instructors  of  the  deaf  and  of  the  blind  are 
represented,  those  interested  in  the  education  of  the  feeble- 
minded having  also  been  included  up  to  1902.  In  addition  to 
the  three  general  organizations  of  educators  of  the  deaf,  there 
have  been  several  local  conferences,  as  of  the  principals  of 
schools  in  the  Southern  states  and  in  New  York,  and  of  teach- 
ers in  the  state  of  Michigan  and  of  the  city  of  New  York. 

^  Its  first  publication  was  by  the  instructors  of  the  Hartford 
School.  Publication  was  omitted  in  1849,  and  from  1861  to 
1868. 

=^For  other  publications  that  have  appeared  in  the  interest 
of  the  deaf,  see  "  Periodicals  Devoted  to  the  Interests  of  the 
Deaf,"  by  the  Volta  Bureau,  1913. 


116  THE  DEAF 

schools,  or  institutions,  there  are  also  papers, 
which  often  serve  to  keep  parents  and  others  in- 
formed of  the  work  of  the  respective  schools.  We 
have  already  referred  to  the  publications  by  the 
deaf  themselves,  both  secular  and  rehgious. 


PART  II 

PROVISION   FOR  THE   EDUCATION   OF   THE 

DEAF 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   EDUCATION   OF   THE  DEAF  PRIOR  TO 

ITS  INTRODUCTION  INTO  THE  UNITED 

STATES 

AMONG  the  ancient  peoples  generally  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  especially  those  so  by  birth, 
"  were  deemed  as  of  deficient  mentality,  and 
were  accounted,  intellectually,  as  little  better  than 
children,  or,  indeed,  as  idiots.  Though  treated, 
it  seems,  for  the  most  part  humanely,  they  were 
regarded  not  without  some  aversion;  and  their 
affliction  was  not  infrequently  looked  upon  as  a 
visitation  of  the  gods,  some  of  the  hardy  races 
even  destroying  their  deaf  offspring.  For  a 
long  period  there  were  scarcely  any  serious  at- 
tempts to  give  instruction  to  the  deaf. 

Allusions  to  the  deaf  and  their  state  with  re- 
spect to  education  are  found  in  certain  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  writers,  and  occasionally  in 
those  of  other  languages.  ^  Herodotus  speaks  of 
the  deaf  son  of  Crcesus,  and  ^Hippocrates  has 
reference  to  the  deaf  as  a  class.  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle also  make  mention  of  the  deaf,  the  latter 
considering  them  incapable  of  education  because 
of  the  absence  of  the  sense  of  hearing.  Among 
Latin  authors  we  find  an  account  by  Pliny  the 

119 


120  THE  DEAF 

Elder  of  a  deaf  man  who  had  learned  painting. 

It  is  only  after  the  fifteenth  century  that  we 
have  more  or  less  authenticated  accounts  of  the 
instruction  of  the  deaf,  and  many  of  these  are 
hardly  more  than  a  passing  reference  here  and 
there.  It  was,  moreover,  well  after  Europe 
had  taken  its  present  political  appearance  that 
the  modern  attitude  towards  the  deaf  and  their 
instruction  began.  Before  this  their  education 
as  a  class  was  not  thought  of,  and  while  no  doubt 
there  have  always  been  sporadic  instances  of  the 
instruction  of  the  deaf,  it  is  only  since  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  deaf  have  come 
generally  into  the  birthright  of  their  education. 

Yet  it  is  not  so  great  a  matter  of  wonder  that 
the  movements  for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf 
took  organized  shape  so  late  in  the  world's  civili- 
zation. Learning  or  schooling  was  in  no  sense 
popular  till  some  time  after  the  passing  away  of 
the  so-called  dark  ages.  For  long  it  was  rather 
the  privilege  of  the  rich  and  powerful.  The  great 
mass  of  the  people  were  not  deemed  worthy  of 
learning,  and  education  itself  in  any  general  ap- 
plication did  not  have  a  recognized  standing  in 
society.  After  the  Renaissance,  however,  had 
ushered  in  a  new  age,  and  when  the  desire  for 
learning  was  the  master  passion  among  many 
men  in  Southern  and  Western  Europe,  it  is  natu- 
ral to  suppose  that  efforts  should  have  more  fre- 


EARLY  INSTRUCTION  121 

quently  been  made  to  instruct  the  deaf  child;  and 
after  this  time  we  are  prepared  to  find  an  increas- 
ing number  of  instances  of  the  instruction  of  the 
deaf.  This  was  all  the  more  true  when  an  air  of 
mystery  was  felt  to  surround  these  silent  ones, 
and  to  bring  the  light  of  the  new  learning  to  these 
afflicted  creatures  was  considered  well  worth  the 
attempt. 

The  earliest  instance  recorded  of  instruction 
given  to  the  deaf  in  the  English  language  is  that 
of  the  Venerable  Bede  about  the  year  691,  who 
tells  of  a  deaf  person  taught  to  speak  by  Bishop 
John  of  York,  related  as  though  it  were  a  miracle. 
After  many  yekrs  we  meet  accounts  of  other 
cases.  Rudolph  Agricola  (1443-1485)  of  Gronin- 
gen,  Holland,  and  later  a  professor  at  Heidel- 
berg, cites  in  his  '' De  Inventione  Dialecta''  a 
deaf  man  who  could  write.  In  Italy  a  little  later 
we  find  certain  deaf  children  whose  instruction  is 
mentioned  by  Pietro  de  Castro ;  while  in  the  six- 
teenth century  Girolamo  Cardano  (1501-1576), 
the  distinguished  physician  of  Pavia,  attempted 
to  state  the  principles  of  the  education  of  the  deaf, 
demonstrating  the  use  of  a  written  language  for 
them,  and  advocating  the  teaching  of  speech.  He 
further  invented  a  manual  alphabet,  which  was 
one  of  the  first  of  its  kind.  In  1616  Giovanni 
Bonif  accio  also  wrote  regarding  the  "  art  of  sign- 
ing "  and  speech  for  the  deaf. 


122  THE  DEAF 

But  it  is  to  Spain  that  credit  is  to  be  given  as 
being  the  first  country  of  Europe  where  there  are 
recorded  accounts  of  successful  instruction  of  the 
deaf.  In  1550,  or  perhaps  earher,  Pedro  Ponce 
de  Leon  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  taught, 
chiefly  by  oral  methods,  several  deaf  children  in 
the  convent  of  San  Salvador  de  Ona.  Great 
success  must  have  attended  his  efforts,  for  in 
addition  to  the  Spanish  language  and  arithmetic, 
his  pupils  are  reported  to  have  mastered  Latin, 
Greek  and  astrology.  About  this  time  there 
lived  a  deaf  ai-Jist,  known  as  El  Mudo,  and  he 
had  very  likely  received  instruction  in  some  way. 
In  1620  Juan  Pablo  Bonet,  who  had  had 
several  deaf  pupils,  instructing  them  largely  in 
articulation  methods,  published  a  treatise  on  the 
art  of  instructing  the  deaf,  called  "  Reduccion 
de  las  Letras  y  Arta  para  Ensener  a  Hablar  los 
Mudos;"  and  he  was  the  inventor  of  a  manual 
alphabet,  in  considerable  part  like  that  used  in 
America  to-day.  Sir  Kinelm  Digby  of  England, 
visiting  Spain  about  this  time,  saw  Bonet's  work 
and  wrote  an  account  of  his  pupils. 

In  1644  appeared  in  England  '' Chirologia, 
or  the  Natural  Language  of  the  Hand  "  by  a 
physician,  Dr.  John  Bulwer,  who  had  perhaps 
also  observed  the  results  in  Spain.  This  was 
followed  in  1648  by  his  more  important  work, 
"  PhilocophuSy  or  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Man's 


EARLY  INSTRUCTION  123 

Friend,"  mostly  describing  a  kind  of  process  in 
articulation  and  lip-reading.  Bulwer's  friend, 
John  Wallis,  a  professor  at  Oxford,  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  practical  teacher  here,  in- 
structing two  deaf  persons  by  writing  and  in 
speech,  and  showing  them  to  the  King.  In  1653 
his  ''  Tractatus  de  Loquela "  was  published. 
Along  the  same  line  was  the  writing  of  Dr. 
William  Holder  on  the  "  Elements  of  Speech," 
published  in  1669,  in  which  he  advocated  articula- 
tion teaching.  In  1670  there  appeared  a  treatise 
by  George  Sibscota  on  "  The  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Man's  Discourse,"  but  this  was  really  a  transla- 
tion from  the  writings  of  a  German  named  Deu- 
sing.  In  1680  Dr.  George  Dalgarno  of  Scotland 
published  his  "  Didascalocophus,  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb  Man's  Tutor,"  in  which  preference  was 
given  to  the  use  of  a  written  language  and  a 
manual  alphabet,  of  one  of  which  he  was  himself 
the  inventor.  In  1698  appeared  '' Digiti 
Lingua/^  written  "  by  a  person  who  had  con- 
versed no  otherwise  in  above  nine  years."  Some 
half  a  century  later  we  find  the  name  of  Henry 
Baker,  son-in-law  of  Daniel  Defoe,  who  gave 
instruction  in  speech. 

Other  countries  of  Europe  were  hardly  be- 
hind England  in  their  interest  in  the  deaf  and 
their  instruction.  Spain,  besides  the  names  we 
have  mentioned,  had  notably  Ramirez  de  Carion, 


124  THE  DEAF 

himself  a  deaf  man,  who  lived  not  long  after 
Bonet.  Italy  had  in  particular  Padre  Lana 
Terzi,  who  in  1670  published  a  work  on  articula- 
tion; and  also  Fabrizio  d'  Acquapendente  and 
Affinite,  who  in  their  writings  threw  out  ref- 
erences to  speech  for  the  deaf.  In  Holland  there 
were  Peter  Montans,  who  about  1635  issued 
several  tracts  on  speech;  Jan  Baptista  Van 
Helmont,  who  in  1667  wrote  on  speech  and  an 
alphabet;  and  John  Conrad  Amman,  formerly 
a  Swiss  physician,  who  in  1692  gave  out  his 
"  S Urdus  JLoquens/'  which  was  enlarged  and 
republished  in  1700  as  "  Dissert atio  de  Loquela" 
The  name  of  Amman  is  especially  notable,  not 
only  for  his  instruction  in  speech  of  several  deaf 
children,  but  for  his  influence  on  later  oral 
methods.  In  Switzerland  we  find  at  Basel  in 
1531,  or  perhaps  a  few  years  sooner,  an  account 
of  a  deaf  person  who  was  instructed  in  speech  by 
CEcolampadius,  the  Reformer  and  friend  of 
Luther;  at  Geneva  in  1604  of  a  deaf  child  in- 
structed by  St.  Francis  de  Sales;  and  also  in 
Geneva  in  1685  of  a  deaf  person  who  had  prob- 
ably received  instruction. 

In  Germany  we  have  a  regular  succession  of 
names  of  those  who  either  attempted  to  instruct 
the  deaf  or  who  wrote  of  this  instruction,  some 
of  these  names  being  among  the  earliest  of  those 
in  Europe  who  showed  an  interest  in  the  matter. 


EARLY  INSTRUCTION  125 

In  the  year  1578  we  meet  the  name  of  Pasch,  a 
clergyman  of  Brandenburgh,  who  taught  his 
daughter  by  means  of  pictures.  In  1621  Rudolph 
Camerarius  wrote  a  book  on  speech,  and  in  1642 
Gaspard  Schott  mentions  a  case  of  successful 
instruction.  In  1701  or  1704  Kerger  at  Liegnitz 
in  Silesia  taught  some  pupils  orally,  having  what 
seemed  a  temporary  school.  In  1718  Georges 
Raphel,  who  had  taught  his  three  deaf  daughters, 
wrote  a  book  explaining  his  process  of  instruc- 
tion. Among  other  names  appearing  earlier  or 
later  were  those  of  Morhoff,  MaUenkrot,  Wild, 
Niederoff,  Lichwitz,  Shulze,  Ettmuller,  Arnoldi, 
Lasius,  Heinicke,  and  Nicolai.  Of  all  these 
much  the  most  renowned  is  that  of  Samuel 
Heinicke.  In  1754  at  Dresden  he  became  inter- 
estedT  in  the  deaf,  and  a  few  years  later  started 
a  school  near  Hamburg.  In  1778,  at  the  instance 
of  the  state,  he  moved  to  Leipsic,  his  school  thus 
being  the  first  public  school  for  the  deaf  to  be 
established.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several 
books  on  the  education  of  the  deaf.  Heinicke 
was  instrumental  in  bringing  the  oral  method 
into  favor,  and  in  many  respects,  so  far  as  its 
present  use  is  concerned,  may  be  said  to  be  its 
father.  He  was  in  fact  one  of  the  greatest 
teachers  of  the  deaf,  and  the  influence  of  his  work 
has  been  felt  in  no  small  measure  in  America. 
In  France,  too,  there  were  great  names,  though 


126  THE  DEAF 

they  were  late  in  appearing;  Pere  Vanin, 
Rousset,  Ernaud,  de  Fay,  Pereire,  Abbe  de 
r^fipee,  Abbe  Deschamps,  and  others/  Of  these 
Vanin,  Pereire,  Deschamps,  and  de  I'Epee  are 
the  most  notable.  Vanin  about  1743  instructed 
some  children  by  means  of  pictures  and  a  manual 
alphabet.  Rodriguez  Pereire,  a  Portuguese  Jew, 
had  several  pupils  at  Bordeaux  before  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  though  his  methods 
were  kept  secret  for  the  most  part,  he  appeared 
to  have  met  considerable  success,  in  1749  giving 
an  exhibition  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Abbe  Deschamps  in  1779  published  at  Orleans  a 
work  on  the  instruction  of  the  deaf,  largely 
favoring  the  oral  method.  It  is  to  Charles 
Michel  abbe  de  V  fipee,  however,  that  is  given 
the  highest  reverence  of  all  the  initial  workers  for 
the  deaf,  being  the  founder  of  the  first  regular 
school,  and  receiving  nearly  equal  distinction  for 
his  impression  on  early  methods  of  instruction — 
this  being  especially  true  in  respect  to  America, 
where  his  influence  in  the  introduction  of  the  sign 
language  has  been  greater  than  any  other  man's. 
The  abbe  had  become  interested  in  two  deaf 
orphans  in  Paris,  whom  he  attempted  to  teach, 
and  in  1755  established  a  school  near  the  city, 
conducting  it  at  his  own  expense.     This  proved 

^  In  1751  Diderot  published  his  "  Lettre  sur  les  Sourds  et 
Muets"  in  which  there  is  reference  to  the  education  of  the 
deaf. 


EARLY  INSTRUCTION  127 

a  success,  and  he  decided  to  give  his  whole  life 
to  the  instruction  of  the  deaf.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  their  education,  the  chief  one  being 
''La  Veritable  Maniere  df  Instruire  les  Sourds 
et  Muetsf'  published  in  1784.  The  achievements 
of  de  TEpee  were  soon  far-famed,  and  the 
people  were  taken  with  their  novelty.  Many 
honors  were  offered  him,  and  his  work  was 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  French  Academy 
and  approved.  In  1791  his  school  was  adopted 
by  the  state.  The  successor  of  abbe  de  Y  Epee 
was  abbe  Sicard,  and  the  work  continued  to 
flourish  in  France. 

Not  long  after  de  V  fipee  and  Heinicke  had 
started  their  schools  in  France  and  Germany  re- 
spectively, Thomas  Braidwood,  in  1760,  opened  a 
school  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  In  1784  a 
school  was  established  in  Rome,  in  1788  in 
Madrid,  and  in  1801  in  Genoa.  In  the  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  other  schools 
were  started  over  Western  Europe.  Thus  by 
the  time  that  the  work  for  the  education  of  the 
deaf  was  to  enter  America,  in  the  establishment 
of  the  first  school  in  the  second  decade  of  the 
century,  there  were  already  in  Europe  a  number 
of  schools  in  existence.^ 

*For  accounts  of  the  early  work  for  the  education  of  the 
deaf,  both  before  and  after  it  was  taken  up  in  the  United 
States,  the  following  may  be  referred  to :  Thomas  Arnold,  "  A 
Method  of  Teaching  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Speech,  Lip-Reading 
and  Language  ",  18S1 ;  "  The  Education  of  Deaf -Mutes  ",  1888 ; 
E.  M.  Gallaudet,  "  Life  of  Thomas  Hopkins  Gallaudet ",  1888 ; 


128  THE  DEAF 

H.  N.  Dixon,  "A  Method  of  Teaching  Deaf -Mutes  to  Speak, 
with  a  Historical  Introduction"  (including  a  translation  of 
Bonet's  work),  1890;  J.  K.  Love,  "  Deaf -Mutism ",  1896; 
Henry  Barnard,  "  A  Tribute  to  Gallaudet ",  with  other  papers, 
1852;  Heman  Humphrey,  "Life  and  Labors  of  T.  H.  Gallau- 
det", 1857;  H.  W.  Syle,  "Retrospect  of  the  Education  of  the 
Deaf",  1886;  J.  A.  Seiss,  "The  Children  of  Silence",  1887; 
J.  R.  Burnet,  "Tales  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb",  1835;  E.  J. 
Mann,  "Deaf  and  Dumb",  1836;  J.  N.  Williams,  "A  Silent 
People  ",  1883 ;  W.  R.  Scott,  "  The  Deaf  and  Dumb,  their  Edu- 
cation and  Social  Position",  1870;  History  of  First  School  for 
Deaf -Mutes  in  America,  1883;  Addresses  delivered  at  the  New 
York  Institution,  1847;  H.  P.  Peet,  Address  at  Laying  of 
Corner  Stone  of  North  Carolina  Institution,  1848;  Proceedings 
of  Laying  of  Corner  Stone  of  Michigan  Institution,  1856;  Col- 
lins Stone,  "Address  on  History  and  Methods  of  Deaf -Mute 
Instruction",  1869;  Addresses  Commemorative  of  the  Virtues 
and  Services  of  Abraham  B.  Hutton,  1870;  Ainerican  Annals 
of  the  Deaf  (especially  early  numbers,  often  giving  accounts  of 
individual  schools  as  well  as  of  the  general  work)  ;  North 
American  Review,  vii,  1818,  p.  127;  xxxviiL,  1834,  p.  307; 
Ixxxvii.,  1858,  p.  517;  civ.,  1867,  p.  512;  American  Journal  of 
Edxication,  (n.  s.)  i.,  1830,  p,  409;  American  Annals  of  Educa- 
tion, iv.,  1834,  p.  53;  Literary  and  Theological  Review,  ii., 
1835,  p.  365;  American  Biblical  Repository,  viii.,  1842,  p.  269; 
De  Bow's  Review,  xvii.,  1854,  p.  435;  National  Magazine,  ix., 
1856,  pp.  385,  487  (Sketches  of  Humane  Institutions);  ScriJ)- 
ner's  Magazine,  xii.,  1892,  p.  463;  Association  Review,  ii.-v., 
1900-1904  ("Historical  Notes  concerning  the  Teaching  of 
Speech  to  the  Deaf  " )  ;  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  Ameri- 
can Instructors  of  the  Deaf,  i.,  1850,  p.  99;  v.,  1858,  p.  275  (H. 
P.  Peet,  "Memoirs  on  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of  the 
Art  of  the  Instruction  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb")  ;  iii.,  1853,  p. 
277 ;  iv.,  1856,  p.  17 ;  ix.,  1878,  p.  195 ;  American  Association  to 
Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  v.,  1896,  p.  27  (P. 
G.  Gillet,  "  Some  Notable  Benefactors  of  the  Deaf")  ;  National 
Association  of  the  Deaf,  iii.,  1889,  p.  21;  National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Corrections,  1907,  p.  512;  Calif ornian,  iv., 
1881,  p.  376;  Iowa  Bulletin  of  State  Institutions,  viii.,  1906, 
p.  175;  xii.,  1910,  p.  24;  Transactions  of  Royal  Historical  So- 
ciety, viii.,  1880;  Encyclopedia  Americana,  1883  (History  of 
the  Education  of  the  Deaf  in  the  United  States,  given  in 
Annals,  xxxi.,  1886,  p.  130)  ;  various  reports  of  the  several 
schools  for  the  deaf  in  America  (as  that  of  New  York  In- 
stitution, 1839,  p.  8 ;  1843,  p.  11 ;  1876,  p.  48 ;  American  School, 
1844,  p.  25;  1867,  p.  13;  Pennsylvania  Institution,  1843,  p.  9; 
1892,  p.  64 ;  Kentucky  School,  1857,  p.  8 ;  1867,  p.  13 ;  Michigan 
School,  1858,  p.  40;  Illinois  School,  1868,  p.  42;  New  York  In- 
stitution for  Improved  Instruction,  1869,  p.  26;  Mississippi 
School,  appendicles,  1907,  1909,  1911);  "Histories  of  American 
Schools  for  the  Deaf ",  edited  and  with  an  introduction  by 
Dr.  E.  A.  Fay,  1893  (containing  accounts  of  individual  schools, 
and  a  most  valuable  work). 


CHAPTER  IX 

HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  OF  THE  DEAF  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

Early  Attempts  at  Instruction 

THE  first  instance  of  which  we  have  record 
in  America  of  an  attempt  to  teach  the 
deaf  was  in  1679  ^  when  a  man  named 
Philip  Nelson  of  Rowley,  Massachusetts,  tried  to 
instruct  a  deaf  and  dumb  boy,  Isaac  Kilbourn  by 
name,  in  speech,  though  with  what  success  we  do 
not  know.^  These,  however,  were  the  witchcraft 
days,  and  the  work  of  Nelson  seemed  such  an 
extraordinary  thing  that  the  ministers  of  the 
community  are  said  to  have  made  an  investiga- 
tion, fearing  that  witches  might  be  involved  in 
the  affair.    The  next  instance  of  which  we  have 

*  There  is,  however,  a  case  reported  before  this  of  a  deaf 
person  who  had  received  instruction,  though  hardly  in  Amer- 
ica. This  was  a  woman  who  was  blind  as  well  as  deaf,  and 
who  lived  at  Ipswich,  Massachusetts,  in  1637.  She  had  come 
from  England;  but  whether  or  not  she  had  been  taught  be- 
fore the  coming  on  of  her  affliction,  we  are  left  in  ignorance. 
All  that  we  are  sure  of  is  that  communication  could  be  had 
with  her.  See  John  Winthrop,  "  History  of  New  England  ",  ed. 
1853,  i.,  p.  281;  Annals,  xlv.,  1900,  p.  91. 

2  Association  Review,  ii.,  1900,  p.  34  ( "  Historical  Notes  con- 
cerning the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf").  No  little  debt 
is  owed  to  Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell  for  his  researches  into 
the  early  attempts  at  instruction  in  America. 

129 


130  THE  DEAF 

mention  occurred  in  Virginia  a  century  later, 
when  John  Harrower,  a  school-master  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, had  in  his  school  from  1773  to  1776 
a  deaf  boy  named  John  Edge,  reference  to  whose 
instruction  is  made  in  his  diary. ^ 

The  earhest  effort  for  the  establishment  of  a 
school  for  the  deaf  in  America  of  which  we  know 
was  made  almost  contemporaneously  with  the 
opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  at  the 
time  that  such  schools  were  being  created  over 
Europe.  There  lived  at  this  time  in  Boston  a 
man  named  Francis  Green,  who  had  a  deaf  son. 
This  boy  he  sent  to  the  school  in  Scotland  which 
Braidwood  had  started;  while  he  himself  became 
much  interested  in  the  subject  of  the  education 
of  the  deaf.  In  1783  he  pubhshed  in  England  a 
work  entitled  "  Vox  Oculis  Suhjecta"  In  1803 
he  had,  with  the  help  of  some  of  the  ministers, 
a  census  made  of  the  deaf  in  Massachusetts,  when 
75  were  found,  and  it  was  estimated  that  there 
were  500  in  the  United  States.  Green  felt  the 
need  of  a  school,  and  in  several  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  time  appeared  his  writings,  in  which 
he  urged  the  creation  of  one.^ 

*  American  Historical  Review,  vi.,  1900,  pp.  65,  81,  82,  95. 
See  also  Association  Review,  ii.,  1900,  p.  527. 

^  See  A.  G.  Bell,  "  A  Philanthropist  of  the  Last  Century 
Identified  as  a  Boston  Man ",  1900 ;  North  American  Review, 
civ.,  1867,  p.  512;  Annals,  1,  1848,  p.  189;  ix.,  1857,  p.  169;  xli., 
1860,  p.  258;  xiii.,  1861,  p.  1;  Association  Review,  ii.,  1900, 
pp.  42,  119.  In  some  of  these  are  given  letters  of  Green  ap- 
pearing in  the  New  England  Palladium  and  Columbian  Cen- 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  131 

It  was  in  1810,  however,  and  in  the  city  of 
New  York  that  the  real  beginning  of  deaf-mute 
education  in  the  United  States  was  marked. 
This  was  when  John  Stanford,  a  minister,  found 
several  deaf  children  in  the  city  almshouse  and 
attempted  to  teach  them.  Though  his  efforts 
continued  but  a  short  time,  it  was  these  from 
which  resulted  the  establishment  a  few  years  later 
of  a  school  in  the  city,  the  New  York  Institution.^ 

In  Virginia  shortly  afterwards  a  second  school 
was  started,  which  in  itself  is  to  be  set  down  as  an 
important  stage  in  the  course  of  the  early  at- 
tempts to  create  schools  for  the  deaf  in  America. 
In  1812  there  came  to  the  United  States  John 
Braidwood,  a  member  of  the  family  which  was 
in  control  of  the  institution  at  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, in  the  hope  of  establishing  a  school.  He 
began  plans  for  one  at  Baltimore,  but  before  it 
had  gotten  under  headway,  he  was  called  to 
Virginia  to  undertake  the  instruction  of  the  deaf 
children  of  William  Boiling,  of  Goochland 
County.  This  private  school  continued,  with 
seemingly  satisfactory  results  in  the  progress  of 


tinel,  of  Boston,  and  the  Medical  Repository  and  Review  of 
American  Publications  on  Medicine,  Surgery  and  the  Auxiliary 
Branches  of  Science,  of  New  York.  Green  also  published  a 
translation  of  de  1'  Ep4e's  main  work  and  extracts  from  his 
other  writings.  A  review  of  "Vox  Oculis  Subjecta"  appeared 
in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  Sept.,  1783,  and  in  the  Boston 
Magazine,  Dec,  1784,  Jan.,  1785. 

^Report  of  New  York  Institution,  1843,  p.  17;  Annals,  ix., 
1857,  p.  168. 


132  THE  DEAF 

the  pupils,  for  two  and  a  half  years.  In  1815 
it  was  moved  to  Cobbs,  Chesterfield  County,^  to 
be  open  to  the  public.  The  school  now  promised 
well,  and  there  were  already  several  pupils. 
However,  Braidwood  was  looking  about  for 
other  opportunities,  and  had  been  in  touch  with 
several  parties  in  regard  to  the  employment  of 
his  services.^  In  1816  he  went  to  New  York, 
where  he  proposed  to  start  a  school,  and  collected 
a  few  pupils,  only  to  return  to  Virginia  again 
after  a  few  months.  In  1817  he  began  opera- 
tions anew,  this  time  at  a  private  classical  school 
at  Manchester  under  John  Kilpatrick,  a  minister. 
In  less  than  a  year  this  too  was  abandoned  by 
Braidwood,  who  soon  after  met  his  death.  Kil- 
patrick attempted  to  continue  the  school  only  a 
year  or  two  longer,  possibly  even  taking  a  few 
pupils  with  him  when  he  moved  to  Cumberland 
County  in  1819;  and  so  was  brought  to  an  end 
the  checkered  career  of  this  early  school  for  the 
deaf  in  Virginia.^ 

*At  this  time  the  United  States  and  England  were  at  war, 
and  Braidwood's  adventure  received  official  notice  in  a  permit 
from  the  Commissary  General  of  Prisoners  to  the  Marshal  of 
Virginia. 

^Braidwood  was  in  communication  with  the  promoters  of 
the  schools  now  beinj  organized  in  Hartford  and  New  York. 

'  On  these  schools,  see  History  of  Virginia  School,  1893,  p.  3 ;. 
Report,  1853,  p.  25;  Report  of  New  York  Institution,  1856,  p. 
17;  Annals,  ix.,  1857,  p.  170;  xxi.,  1876,  p.  130;  Associatioti  Re- 
view, u.,  1900,  pp.  257,  385,  489;  v.,  1903,  p.  400.  In  the  last 
are  given  advertisements  and  notices  concerning  the  school 
from  the  Richmond  Enquirer,  the  Petersburg  Republican,  and 
Niles*  Weekly  Register,  of  Baltimore. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  133 

Such  were  the  beginnings  of  the  instruction 
of  the  deaf  in  America.  With  the  exception  of 
these  undertakings,  barely  touching  the  surface 
in  the  number  of  children  reached,  the  only  means 
of  education  possible  in  the  land  was  in  sending 
children  to  a  school  in  Europe,  which  was  done 
in  the  case  of  a  few  wealthy  parents.  For  the 
great  mass  of  the  deaf,  isolated  and  scattered 
though  they  were  at  the  time,  there  was  no  in- 
struction to  be  had. 

But  this  period  was  now  nearly  passed.  Atten- 
tion in  more  than  one  quarter  was  being  directed 
to  the  deaf  and  the  possibilities  of  their  educa- 
tion; and  in  the  breasts  of  not  a  few  men  a  feel- 
ing was  astir  that  instruction  was  somehow  to  be 
brought  to  them.^  The  seed  was  already  sown, 
and  by  the  time  the  school  in  Virginia  was  broken 
up,  others  were  beginning  to  arise  elsewhere. 
When  the  work  was  finally  to  be  taken  up,  it  was 
to  be  upon  a  solid  foundation  which  should  last 
with  the  lastingness  of  education. 

*  Among  those  who  had  given  the  matter  thought  was  Dr. 
William  Thornton  of  Philadelphia,  who  in  1793  published 
"  Cadmus :  a  Treatise  on  the  Elements  of  Written  Language  ", 
there  being  an  appendix  on  "  A  Mode  of  Teaching  the  Deaf,  or 
Surd,  and  Consequently  Dumb,  to  Speak".  Transactions  of 
American  Philosophical  Society,  iii.,  p.  262,  as  cited  in  Associa- 
tion Review,  ii.,  1900,  p.  113.  See  also  ibid.,  v.,  1903,  p.  406; 
Annals,  i.,  1848,  p.  190.  He  was  the  first  writer  in  America 
upon  the  education  of  the  deaf. 


134  THE  DEAF 

Beginning  of  the  Fikst  Schools 

The  seat  of  the  first  permanent  school  to  be 
established  in  the  United  States  for  the  education 
of  the  deaf  was  Hartford,  Connecticut;  and  the 
name  of  the  one  man  with  which  the  beginning 
work  will  forever  be  coupled  is  that  of  Thomas 
Hopkins  Gallaudet.  America,  however,  was  not 
to  commence  the  work* of  itself:  the  spirit  and 
the  method  had  to  be  brought  from  Europe. 

Efarly  in  the  nineteenth  century  there  lived  at 
Hartford  a  young  deaf  girl,  AHce  Cogswell  by 
name,  the  daughter  of  a  physician,  and  in  her  a 
group  of  men  had  become  interested.  An  in- 
vestigation of  the  number  of  the  deaf  had  been 
made  in  1812  by  a  body  of  clergymen,  when  84 
were  found,  and  it  was  estimated  that  there  were 
400  in  New  England,  and  2,000  in  the  United 
States;  and  the  question  of  a  school  had  been 
considered.^  In  1815  the  friends  of  Alice  Cogs- 
well decided  to  organize  a  society  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  means  to  instruct  some  of  these, 
and  to  secure  an  instructor.  To  take  up  this 
work,  attention  was  directed  to  Gallaudet,  then 
a  young  theological  student.  He  was  fixed  upon 
as  the  man  to  go  to  Europe  and  acquaint  himself 
with  the  methods  there  employed.     Gallaudet 

'  By  some  at  this  time  there  were  not  believed  to  be  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  the  deaf  to  justify  a  school,  and  it  was  due  to 
this  mainly  that  the  investigation  was  made. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  135 

responded  at  once  to  the  appeal  made  to  him, 
and  proceeded  to  prepare  himself  forthwith. 

The  same  year,  1815,  saw  Gallaudet  start  upon 
his  errand,  his  expenses  being  defrayed  by 
the  society.^  He  first  visited  England,  but 
finding  there  a  monopoly  composed  of  the  Braid- 
wood  and  Watson  families,  he  betook  himself  to 
France.  In  this  country  he  met  with  a  warm 
reception,  and  here  he  eagerly  set  upon  his  labors 
of  study  and  investigation  at  the  school  which 
de  r  Epee  had  established.  He  observed  closely, 
and  then  the  following  year  turned  his  face  to- 
wards America,  equipped  for  the  great  work 
before  him,  and  bringing  with  him  one  of  the 
deaf  teachers  from  Paris  named  Laurent  Clerc. 

On  Gallaudet's  return  the  second  part  of  the 
undertaking  for  the  creation  of  a  school  was  to 
be  accomplished,  namely,  the  securing  of  funds, 
which  required  half  a  year  more.  For  this  pur- 
pose Gallaudet  and  a  few  others  set  about 
soliciting  contributions.  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Albany,  New  Haven,  and  other  cities  were 
visited,  and  the  interest  in  the  new  undertaking 
was  shown  by  the  response  made.^  By  the  time 
the  school  was  ready  to  open,  over  $12,000  had 
been    obtained,    which    was    soon    after    more 

*  Funds  to  the  amount  of  $2,278  were  subscribed  before  the 
departure  of  Gallaudet.    Association  Review,  iii.,  1901,  p.  329. 

^  rt  is  said  that  Stephen  Girard  declined  to  contribute  be- 
cause Philadelphia  was  not  chosen  as  the  site  of  the  school. 
Tribute  to  Gallaudet,  p.  114. 


136  THE  DEAF 

than  doubled/  The  contributions  came  from 
various  sources,  including  individuals,  societies 
and  churches,  and  were  from  not  a  few  states, 
and  even  foreign  countries.  A  charter  was 
granted  the  society  in  1816  by  the  legislature  of 
Connecticut;  and  $5,000  was  appropriated  for 
the  school,^  which  was  probably  the  first  ap- 
propriation of  public  money  for  education  not  in 
regular  schools.^ 

On  April  15,  1817,  the  new  school  threw  open 
its  doors,  and  thus  was  established  the  first  in- 
stitution for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf — in  fact, 
the  first  for  any  of  the  so-called  "  defective 
classes."  Its  success  was  assured  from  the  start, 
and  there  were  many  applicants,  coming  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  The  school  had  to 
depend  mainly  upon  private  contributions,  and 
for  its  maintenance  efforts  had  to  be  continued 
to  collect  funds,  pupils  being  taken  for  this  pur- 
pose to  several  cities  for  exhibition,  especially 
before  church  assemblies  and  the  legislative 
bodies  of  New  England.*  It  was  not  long  in 
appearing,  however,  that,  as  the  school  was  really 

^  Ibid.,  p.  155. 

'This  grant  seems  to  have  been  used  later  for  the  benefit 
of  Connecticut  pupils. 

'This,  however,  was  not  the  first  appropriation  to  a 
benevolent  institution.  The  colony  of  Pennsylvania  in  1751 
had  voted  an  appropriation  for  certain  of  its  insane  in  a 
hospital  to  be  opened  the  following  year,  while  New  York  in 
1S06  granted  $15,000  for  the  care  of  its  insane  in  a  hospital. 
Virginia  established  its  insane  asylum  at  Williamsburg  in 
1773. 

*See  Laws  of  Maine,  1829,  p.  24. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  137 

to  be  national  in  scope,  the  United  States  govern- 
ment might  be  appealed  to  for  aid.  Visits  were 
accordingly  made  to  Washington  in  1819,  and 
the  interest  of  certain  of  the  members  of  Con- 
gress was  secured.  Among  these  was  Henry 
Clay,  who  showed  a  particular  regard  for  the 
new  undertaking,  and  it  was  largely  through  his 
influence  that  Congress  was  prevailed  upon  to 
bestow  upon  the  school  23,000  acres  of  the  public 
land,  from  which  in  time  $300,000  was  realized.^ 
It  was  the  understanding,  there  being  no  census 
of  the  deaf  at  this  time,  that  any  state  or  indi- 
vidual might  participate  in  the  benefit  of  this 
grant,  and  that  the  school  was  to  be  open  on 
equal  terms  to  all.^ 

Though  the  school  was  regarded  as  national  in 
one  sense,  it  was  also  felt  to  be  particularly  New 
England's  from  the  share  that  these  states  took 
in  its  development.  Very  soon  after  it  had  com- 
menced operations  a  lively  interest  had  been 
manifested;  and  in  1825  a  meeting  was  held  at 
Hartford  of  official  representatives  of  all  these 
states  except  Rhode  Island,  to  discuss  the  pos- 
sibilities of  co-operation  in  its  work.^     Hardly, 

"^Annals,  iv.,  1851,  p.  63;  National  Magazine,  ix.,  1856,  p. 
489. 

2  Tribute  to  Gallaudet,  p.  136.  This  was  also  expressed 
in  the  Missionary  Herald,  Sept.,  1826,  quoted  in  American 
Journal  of  Education,  i.,  1826,  p.  631.  At  the  same  time  caution 
was  advised  as  to  the  result,  as  the  benefit  was  to  depend  upon 
the  sale  of  the  land. 

^Report  of  American  School,  1825,  p.  5;  1836,  p.  22. 


138  THE  DEAF 

indeed,  had  the  school  entered  upon  its  labor 
when,  without  solicitation,  Massachusetts  began 
sending  its  deaf  children  to  it.  It  was  followed  in 
turn  by  the  others,  all  the  states  of  New  Eng- 
land thus  coming  to  provide  for  their  children 
here  as  at  a  common  school — a  policy  continued 
with  all  for  many  years.  By  this  arrangement 
a  certain  amount  from  the  state  treasury  was 
allowed  for  each  pupil.  The  action  of  Mass- 
achusetts was  taken  in  1819,  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1821,  of  Vermont  and  Maine  in  1825,  of  Con- 
necticut in  1828,  and  of  Rhode  Island  in  1842. 
Two  other  states,  far  removed  from  New  Eng- 
land, also  by  special  legislative  grants  provided 
for  pupils  in  this  school  for  a  time.  These  were 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  both  beginning  in 
1834.^  In  addition,  there  were  private  pupils 
sent  here  from  a  number  of  states.^ 

The  school  at  Hartford  was  now  in  full  opera- 
tion, with  a  nation-wide  interest  upon  it.^    But 

-In  1821  steps  were  taken  to  establish  a  school  in  South 
Carolina.  A  census  of  the  deaf  children  in  the  state  was  made, 
29  being  found.  The  school  here,  however,  was  not  started  till 
some  years  later.  See  Report  of  South  Carolina  School,  1904, 
p.  7.  In  neither  the  case  of  this  state  nor  that  of  Georgia 
was  the  number  of  pupils  annually  sent  to  Hartford  large, 
ranging  from  2  to  8  in  each.  See  Report  of  American  School, 
1835,  p.  9;  Georgia  School,  1874,  p.  11;  American  Annals  of 
Education,  v.,  1835,  p.  93.  A  joint  school  for  the  couth-eastern 
states  was  also  contemplated  at  this  time. 

-There  were  several  pupils  here  supported  by  the  United 
States  government,  who  were  the  children  of  deceased  vet- 
erans, the  first  coming  from  Maryland  in  1819.  History  of 
Maryland  School,  1893,  p.  11. 

•Gallaudet  remained  at  the  head  of  the  American  Asylum, 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  139 

scarcely  had  it  received  its  first  pupil  when  other 
schools  began  to  be  established,  and  indeed  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  are  hardly  to  be  con- 
sidered behind  Connecticut  at  all,  schools  in  these 
states  being  in  the  course  of  formation  when  the 
Hartford  school  was  opened.  From  the  con- 
cern now  apparent  in  many  sections,  it  was  soon 
evident  that  the  new  work  was  to  spread  over  the 
land,  and  that  the  education  of  the  deaf  had 
achieved  for  itself  an  established  position. 
f  In  New  York,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Rev.  John 
Stanford  had  found  several  deaf  children  in  the 
almshouse  of  the  city,  and,  moved  by  their  condi- 
tion, had  sought  to  teach  them.  Interest  was  felt 
by  other  men,  and  the  agitation  for  a  school  was 
furthered  by  letters  from  the  American  consul  at 
Bordeaux  in  1816,  one  of  which  was  written  by  a 
French  teacher  and  addressed  to  the  "  Philan- 
thropists of  the  United  States."  A  census  was 
made  of  the  deaf  in  the  city,^  meetings  were  held 

as  It  was  then  called,  till  1828,  when  he  resigned.  He  was 
engaged  thereafter  in  various  philanthropic  activities,  and  was 
invited  to  lead  in  the  work  for  the  education  of  the  blind, 
towards  which  attention  was  now  being  directed.  Notwith- 
standing the  impairment  of  his  health,  his  different  labors 
were  continued,  not  the  least  of  which  was  his  office  as  chaplain 
of  the  Connecticut  Asylum  for  the  Insane.  To  Thomas  Hop- 
kins Gallaudet  America  owes  a  rare  debt.  Without  him  the 
work  for  the  deaf  would  have  been  taken  up  eventually  by 
other  hands,  but  he  brought  to  his  task  a  disregard  for  obsta- 
cles, a  splendid  idealism,  a  fine  conception  of  duty,  a  complete 
forgetfulness  of  self,  a  singular  beauty  of  character,  and  a 
great  human  love  that  could  have  existed  in  but  few  other 
men. 

^  There  were  66  found  in  a  very  short  time. 


140  THE  DEAF 

in  their  behalf,  a  notable  one  taking  place  at 
Tammany  Hall,  and  private  funds  collected.  In 
1817  a  charter  was  secured  from  the  legislature, 
and  the  following  year  the  school  was  opened. 
The  city  of  New  York  displayed  a  warm  interest 
in  it,  making  a  special  appropriation  at  its  be- 
ginning, and  undertaking  the  support  of  a  num- 
ber of  pupils  for  a  time,  besides  furnishing 
quarters  free  of  cost.  In  1819  the  state  legisla- 
ture, after  an  exhibit  of  pupils,  decided  to  assist, 
making  an  appropriation  for  the  benefit  of  the 
school,  and  soon  afterward  allowing  a  certain 
amount  for  each  pupil.  In  1821  New  Jersey 
began  sending  children  to  the  school,  action  being 
taken  in  this  state  by  a  imanimous  vote. 

Pennsylvania  followed  close  upon  Connecticut 
and  New  York.  A  committee  had  l)een  organized 
in  Philadelphia  in  1816  to  secure  contributions 
for  a  school,  and  meetings  had  been  held,  though 
without  immediate  result.  Late  in  the  year 
1819,  or  early  in  1820,  David  Seixas,  a  Jew,  find- 
ing several  poor  deaf-mute  children  to  whom  he 
gave  shelter,  made  attempts  to  teach  them.  In 
the  latter  year  a  society  was  formed  by  certain 
citizens,  after  a  meeting  in  the  rooms  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society;  and  being 
pleased  with  the  work  of  Seixas,  it  decided  to 
adopt  his  school.  The  following  year,  after 
an    exhibit   of    pupils,    the    school    was    incor- 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  141 

porated  by  the  legislature,  and  granted  a  per 
capita  appropriation  of  $160,  while  contributions 
from  friends  were  numerous.  In  1821,  also, 
pupils  were  admitted  from  New  Jersey,  this  state 
providing  for  them  both  at  the  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  schools.  In  1827  Maryland,  and  in 
1835  Delaware,  authorized  the  sending  of  chil- 
dren to  the  Pennsylvania  Institution,  exhibits  of 
pupils  having  been  made  before  the  legislatures 
of  these  states.^ 
j  Kentucky  in  1823  was  the  fourth  state  in  the  ^^^^f 
Union  to  establish  a  school.  In  this  case,  how-  ^^ 
ever,  action  was  taken  directly  by  the  legislature, 
and  the  school  has  always  been  the  property  of 
the  state.  In  1826  ^  Congress  granted  to  it  a 
township  of  land  in  Florida,  on  the  theory  that 
this  school  would  be  the  center  for  pupils  from 
the  western  and  southern  states;  and  it  was  for 
some  years  the  place  of  education  for  many  of 

*  Volumes  lii.  and  iv.  of  the  Association  Review  (1901  and 
1902)  contain  most  interesting  accounts  of  these  first  schools, 
with  extracts  from  early  reports,  letters  of  Dr.  Cogswell, 
Gallaudet  and  others ;  extracts  from  the  Hartford  Courant  and 
the  Connecticut  Mirror,  both  urging  the  importance  of  the 
school  established  at  Hartford  and  the  need  of  contributions, 
and  the  latter  (in  the  issue  of  March  24,  1817)  giving  the 
conditions  and  terms  of  admission;  also  extracts  from  other 
papers,  as  the  Albany  Daily  Advertiser,  the  New  York  Com- 
mercial Advertiser,  the  General  Aurora  Advertiser,  Poulson's 
American  Daily  Advocate,  the  Christian  Observer,  the  Free- 
man's Journal  and  Columbian  Chronicle,  of  Philadelphia,  and 
Tifiles''  Weekly  Register,  of  Baltimore.  See  also  E.  M.  Gallau- 
det, "Life  of  Thomas  Hopkins  Gallaudet." 

»Pub.  Stat.  eh.  24. 


142  THE  DEAF 

the  children  from  the  southern  states,^  and  also 
for  a  number  from  western  states.  With  the 
establishment  of  this  school  directly  by  the  state 
begins  a  new  policy  in  the  provision  for  the 
education  of  the  deaf — the  work  no  longer  being 
entrusted  to  private  individuals  and  societies. 
All  the  states  that  followed  Kentucky  in  the  crea- 
tion of  schools,  with  the  exception  of  Maryland 
and  some  of  the  New  England  states,  adopted 
this  policy. 

Ohio  came  next  in  1829,  although  an  attempt 
had  been  made  to  establish  a  school  in  Cincinnati 
as  early  as  1821.^  Pupils  were  also  received 
into  it  from  neighboring  states.^  In  1838  Vir- 
ginia estabhshed  a  joint  school  for  the  deaf  and 
the  blind,  after  exhibitions  of  pupils  had  been 
given  in  the  state.  In  Indiana  a  private  school 
was  started  in  1841,  and  three  years  later  the 
state  institution,  action  being  taken  by  the 
legislature  without  a  single  dissenting  vote.  In 
this  state  another  stage  is  reached  in  the  work  of 
educating  the  deaf:  education  which  had  hitherto 

*  Pupils  were  in  time  received  here  from  all  the  Southern 
states.    History,  1893,  p.  5. 

'This  was  to  be  called  "The  Western  Asylum  for  the  Edu- 
cation of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  ".  An  association  was  formed, 
and  the  legislature  was  asked  to  incorporate  the  school.  In 
1822  a  census  was  taken  for  all  the  state  except  two  counties, 
when  428  deaf  persons  were  found.  The  school  was  not  es- 
tablished on  the  ground  that  it  was  too  far  removed  from  the 
center  of  the  state.  See  Annals,  v.,  1853,  p.  221;  xxv.,  1880, 
p.  30;  Report  of  Ohio  School,  1876,  p.  30. 

•A  school  under  Roman  Catholic  auspices  was  established 
near  St.  Louis  in  1837. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  143 

been,  by  statute,  free  to  the  "  indigent "  only 
is  in  positive  terms  made  free  to  all.  This  was 
done  in  1848,  and  the  action  has  been  thus  de- 
scribed: ^ 

The  doors  of  all  asylums  built  at  public  expense  for 
mutes,  for  the  blind,  and  for  lunatics  were  thrown  open 
to  all,  that  their  blessings,  like  the  rain  and  dew  of 
heaven,  might  freely  descend  on  these  children  of  mis- 
fortune throughout  the  state,  without  money  and  with- 
out price. 

Well  might  this  paean  break  forth,  for  this  is 
probably  the  broadest  benevolent  legislation  ever 
enacted  up  to  this  time. 

In  Georgia  a  private  school  was  opened  in 
1842,  and  in  1846  the  state  school  was  established, 
after  a  visit  of  pupils  from  the  Hartford  school. 
In  1845  a  school  was  started  in  Tennessee,  after 
an  exhibit  of  pupils  from  Kentucky.  The  same 
year  in  North  Carolina,  after  an  exhibit  of  pupils 
from  Virginia,  a  school  was  opened  for  the  deaf 
and  the  blind,  though  one  had  been  projected  as 
early  as  1828.^    In  1846  a  school  was  established 

^Report  of  Indiana  School,  1851,  p.  26.  See  also  Annals, 
vi.,  1854,  p.  150.  This  honor  is  also  to  be  shared  in  by 
the  state  of  Ohio.  In  1844,  or  four  years  before  the  action  of 
Indiana,  the  laws  prohibiting  the  trustees  from  receiving  more 
than  a  certain  number  of  indigent  pupils  in  one  year  at  the 
expense  of  the  state  were  repealed,  and  the  trustees  were 
authorized  to  admit  suitable  pupils,  as  they  might  deem  neces- 
sary and  proper.  This  probably  had  the  effect  of  allowing  all 
pupils  free  attendance,  though  it  remained  with  the  trustees 
to  decide.  The  formal  removal  of  limitations  respecting  in- 
digent pupils  did  not  take  place  till  1854. 

^'A  society  was  formed  for  the  purpose,  a  charter  secured 


144  THE  DEAF 

in  Illinois,  the  bill  passing  the  legislature  by  a 
unanimous  vote.  To  it  came  pupils  from 
Missouri,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin.  In  1849  a 
school  was  established  in  South  Carolina.  Thus 
by  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  or 
thirty-two  years  after  the  founding  of  the  first 
school  in  America,  there  were  schools  in  a  dozen 
states.  In  the  next  quarter  century  schools  were 
created  in  nineteen  other  states,  and  since  in 
nearly  all  the  remainder. 

Eaely  Ideas  concerning  the  Schools  for  the  Deaf 

It  was  but  natural  that  for  some  years  the 
providing  of  schools  for  the  education  of  the 
deaf  should  be  looked  upon  with  wonder.  To 
many  the  very  thought  of  their  instruction 
seemed  strange.  Curious  notions  had  been  held 
as  to  the  deaf-mute's  mind,  and  it  was  not  cer- 
tain how  far  it  was  capable  of  instruction. 

By  some  the  idea  of  the  education  of  the  deaf 
was  received  with  scarcely  concealed  skepticism, 
and  despite  the  enthusiasm  of  the  promoters  and 
despite  the  cordial  interest  manifested  in  many 
quarters,  there  were  not  a  few  doubters.  Efforts 
to  educate  the  deaf  were  even  declared  quixotic 
and  absurd.  When  the  state  of  Illinois  was 
erecting  a  building  to  be  used  as  a  school,  it  was 
by    some    called    "the    state's    folly."  ^      The 

from  the  legislature,  and  Congress  petitioned  for  land.    Annals, 
xiii.,  1868,  p.  233. 
^History,  1898,  p.  9. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  145 

legislatures  themselves  occasionally  had  misgiv- 
ings, and  now  and  then  an  appropriation  was 
voted  for  a  school  more  in  hope  than  otherwise.^ 
The  work  was  thus  with  many  often  misunder- 
stood, and  a  few  of  the  schools  did  not  have  alto- 
gether easy  sailing. 

But  when  it  was  found  that  the  deaf  could  be, 
and  were  being,  educated,  not  only  were  all 
doubts  dispelled,  but  the  astonishment  almost 
goes  beyond  bounds,  and  even  passes  into  a 
rapture  of  thanksgiving.  Visitors,  in  some 
cases,  flocked  to  the  places  where  these  wonder- 
ful things  were  transpiring.  They  came  to  con- 
vince themselves,  and  stood  hushed  in  admiration 
at  the  spectacle  before  them. 

The  accounts  of  a  number  of  the  early  schools 
attest  the  greeting  given  to  the  new  work. 
The  New  York  Institution  in  its  first  report^ 
speaks  of  the  "  numerous  visitors  "  and  their  "  ex- 
pressions of  mingled  surprise  and  delight."  In 
the  new  Pennsylvania  Institution  interest  was 
markedly  aroused.  By  Poulson's  American 
Daily  Advocate  of  Philadelphia  it  was  stated 
that  1,600  people  crowded  into  a  church  to  wit- 
ness an  examination  of  pupils,  and  by  the 
Columbian  Observer  it  was  declared  that  this 

*In  Maryland,  for  instance,  we  find  an  early  appropriation 
for  those  "  teachable ".  The  American  Journal  of  Education 
tells  of  the  wonder  on  the  part  of  the  legislators  of  Massa- 
chusetts when  a  class  of  deaf-mutes  was  exhibited  in  their 
presence,     iv.,  1829,  p.  78. 

*P.  5. 


146  THE  DEAF 

scene  "  was  impressive  beyond  description,"  and 
that  "  the  exercises  excited  wonder  mingled  with 
the  acutest  sensations  of  compassion  for  these 
isolated  beings."  ^  An  early  report  of  the 
Tennessee  School  ^  speaks  of  the  interest 
"  evinced  by  the  great  nimibers  of  persons  "  who 
visited  the  school,  which  was  shown  "  by  the 
sjTTipathy  warmly  expressed  with  the  great 
affliction  "  of  the  pupils,  and  the  "  surprise  at 
the  attainments  made  by  them." 

Indeed,  the  new  work  is  more  than  once  re- 
ferred to  in  the  accounts  of  the  ^period  as  a 
miracle.  The  age  of  miracles,  we  are  told,  was 
not  past,^  When  a  private  school  was  opened  in 
Kansas,  the  advertisement  ran:  "  Behold  the 
educational  miracle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  deaf  hear,  the  dumb  speak,  the  bhnd  see."  * 
The  wonders  of  education  had  become  all  the 
more  marked  and  expectations  were  aroused  to  a 
high  pitch,  when  it  was  seen  about  this  time  that 
the  blind  and  other  classes  as  well  were  being 
instructed.  Great  things  were  believed  to  be  in 
store  for  the  human  race. 

With  the  schools  for  the  deaf  there  was  now 
general    approbation    and    support.     Doubters 

*  See  Sketch  of  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Institution  for 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  Pennsylvania,  1821. 

'Report,  1867,  p.  12. 

'  See   Annals,   iii.,    1851,   p.    123,   quoting   from   the   Boston 
Congrega  tiona  list. 

*  History,  1893,  p.  3. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  147 

were  silenced,  and  the  promoters  took  heart. 
Soon  the  new  institutions  had  won  for  themselves 
a  place  in  the  intelligent  and  affectionate  regard 
of  all ;  and  to  those  instrumental  in  their  creation 
the  people  universally  "  pledged  their  gratitude." 

Aims  of  the  Founders 

Though  the  first  schools  for  the  deaf  in  the 
United  States  were  founded  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  the  idea  of  charity  or  benevolence 
present,  yet^  this  was  not  so  much  the  uppermost 
purpose  as  to  provide  instruction  for  them;  or 
rather,  it  may  be  said  that  the  benevolence  itself 
was  prompted  by  the  desire  to  see  the  deaf  led 
from  the  darkness  of  ignorance  to  the  light  of 
education.  It  is  true  that  many  of  the  pupils 
were  recognized  as  entitled  to  material  assistance 
as  well  as  instruction.  Some  of  the  schools 
were  chartered  as  benevolent  institutions,  while 
several  even  avowed  themselves  as  charitable 
affairs.^  It  is  also  true  that  the  promoters 
were  in  part  concerned  with  deaf  children  found 
in  poverty,  these  being  likely  to  engage  not 
a  little  attention.  It  was  desired  to  furnish 
homes  for  a  number  without  charge;  and  early 
accounts    and    statutes    speak    of   the    "  care," 

*See  Report  of  American  School,  1823,  p.  5;  1824,  p.  10; 
1840,  pp.  5,  24 ;  New  York  Institution,  1829,  p.  17 ;  Pennsylvania 
Institution,  1839,  p.  6;  Illinois  School,  1856,  p.  10;  Report  of 
Select  Committee  to  Visit  Pennsylvania  Institution,  1838,  p.  3. 


148  THE  DEAF 

"  aid,"  "  maintenance  "  or  "  support  "  ^  of  these 
children.  But  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  the 
great  purpose  in  establishing  institutions  was 
educational,  and  the  instruction  of  the  children 
was  the  primary  and  chief  thing  guiding  the 
hands  of  the  men  who  created  the  schools.  In 
the  prospectuses  of  some  of  the  schools  any  ob- 
ject is  disclaimed  other  than  that  of  education. 
In  a  circular  describing  the  proposed  school  in 
Kansas  were  the  words :  "  This  is  not  an  asylimi, 
but  a  school  for  the  education  of  the  deaf."  ^ 
Homes,  or  institutions,  were  provided  largely 
for  the  reason  that  this  plan  appeared  the  only 
practicable  means  of  reaching  a  considerable 
number  of  pupils. 

With  the  early  workers,  then,  the  purpose  was 
to  give  the  children  an  education.  But  this  was 
not  all.  In  their  vision,  a  far  greater  opening 
presented  itself.  Heretofore  the  deaf  had  been 
outcasts  from  society,  had  no  place  among 
civilized  beings,  and  were  a  dead  weight  in  the 
commiltiity.  Now  all  was  to  be  changed.  Eyes 
saw  a  glorious  transformation:  the  deaf  were  to 
be  restored  to  society,  and  education  was  the 

*Tt  Is  interesting  to  note  that  of  the  first  four  Institutions 
incorporated  in  New  York,  the  purposes  are  thus  respectively 
given :  "  to  afford  the  necessary  means  of  instruction  to  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  also  provide  for  the  support  and  main- 
tenance of  those  whose  parents  are  unable " ;  "  to  aid  and 
instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb  " ;  "  to  instruct  and  support " ; 
and  "  to  receive,  care  for,  support  and  educate  ". 

"History,  1893,  p.  4.     See  also  Annals,  vL,  1853,  p.  234. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  149 

magic  by  which  it  was  to  be  done.  In  full  meas- 
ure were  the  founders  thrilled  with  this  prospect ; 
and  to  reclaim  the  deaf  from  their  condition  was 
the  great  resolve. 

Many  of  the  early  reports,  charters  and  or- 
ganic acts  express  such  a  purpose,  arid  speak  of 
the  "  lonely  and  cheerless  condition  "  of  the  deaf, 
and  the  hope  to  "  restore  them  to  the  ranks  of 
their  species."  In  the  preamble  of  an  "  Address 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  Pennsylvania,"  prepared 
by  the  society  to  establish  the  school  in  this 
state,^  the  deaf  are  ^aid  to  be  in  "  entire  and  in- 
vincible separation  from  the  vast  stores  of  knowl- 
edge which  human  talent  has  accumulated — 
ignorant  of  the  truths  of  Revelation,  her  glorious 
assurances  and  unspeakable  consolations,"  all 
being  "  among  the  bitter  ingredients  which  fill 
up  the  vast  measure  of  the  affliction  to  the  deaf 
and  dumb;"  and  that  "among  the  various 
efforts  of  philanthropy  and  learning  to  enlarge 
the  circle  of  human  happiness  and  knowledge, 
none  should  perhaps  rank  higher  than  those 
which  have  been  directed  to  the  discovery  and 
application  of  means  for  the  instruction  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb." 

In  language  glowing  and  impassioned  the  con- 

*  Account  of  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Pennsylvania  In- 
stitution, 1821,  pp.  4,  7.  See  also  "  Sketch  of  Origin  and 
Progress,"  etc.,  1821,  p.  4;  Report  of  Pennsylvania  Institution, 
1875,  p.  22. 


160  THE  DEAF 

dition  of  the  deaf  without  education  is  described. 
Almost  universally  they  are  thought  of  as  abid- 
ing in  impenetrable  silence  and  deep  darkness. 
In  an  address  delivered  before  the  New  York 
Forum  in  behalf  of  the  New  York  Institution  ^ 
in  its  early  days,  it  is  asserted  that  the  deaf  dwell 
in  "  silence,  solitude  and  darkness,"  and  in  the 
second  report  of  this  school  ^  they  are  declared 
to  be  "  wrapt  in  impenetrable  gloom  of  silence, 
sorrow  and  despair."  In  an  Ohio  report  ^  they 
are  said  to  be  in  "  intellectual  and  moral  mid- 
night; and  in  a  Michigan  report  *  to  be  "  grop- 
ing in  thick  darkness."  In  a  Louisiana  report  ^ 
they  are  called  "  sorrow- stricken  children  of 
silence; "  and  in  a  Kentucky  report^  their  lives 
are  described  as  "  dark,  dreary  and  comfortless." 
The  Southern  Literary  Messenger'^  of  Rich- 
mond, Virginia,  characterizes  their  existence  as 
"  intellectual  night."  The  New  York  Commer- 
cial Advertiser  ^  in  the  year  the  first  school  was 
opened  affirms  that  "  their  intellectual  faculties 
. . .  are  . . .  locked  in  the  darkness  of  night  and 
shrouded  in  silence."     In  an  address  delivered 

*By  Silvanus  Miller,  1819,  p.  15. 
»1819,  p.  31  (reprint  of  1894). 
*1839,  p.  5. 
*1862,  p.  5. 
"1853,  p.  20. 
•1848,  p.  3. 
M.,  1835,  p.  136. 

«Jan.,  18,  1817.     Quoted  in  Association  Review,  iii.,  1901, 
p.  434. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  151 

shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  Tennessee 
School  *  they  are  referred  to  as  "  entombed  in  a 
prison/'  The  Albany  Argus  and  Daily  City 
Gazette  ^  points  to  the  deaf  man  as  *'  abandoned 
to  his  hard  fate,  to  wander  in  darkness,  the  piti- 
able object  of  dismal  despair."  In  an  address 
delivered  in  the  Capitol  in  Washington  ^  the  deaf 
are  said  to  be  "  doomed  to  wear  out  their  lives  in 
intellectual  darkness." 

The  results  of  education  were  to  be  great  be- 
yond measurement,  and  the  passing  of  the  deaf 
from  ignorance  to  education  is  likened  even  to 
the  glories  of  the  Resurrection.  A  Committee  of 
Congress  *  in  recommending  the  granting  of 
land  to  the  Kentucky  School  speaks  of  education 
as  "  the  only  means  of  redeeming  this  unfortunate 
portion  of  our  species  from  the  ignorance  and 
stupidity  to  which  they  would  otherwise  be  con- 
signed by  the  partial  hand  of  nature,  and,  indeed, 
of  transferring  them  from  a  state  of  almost 
mental  blindness  to  that  of  intellectual  and  ac- 
countable beings."  The  New  York  Statesman  ^ 
speaks  of  the  effects  in  "  improving  the  moral 
principle,  which  is  torpid  and  almost  obliterated, 

*  Address  at  Proceedings  of  Laying  of  Corner  Stone,  1848, 
p.  13. 

^  March  1,  1827.    Quoted  in  Report  of  New  York  Institution, 
1827,  p.  19. 

"By  Lewis  Weld,  1828,  p.  3. 

*  Report  of   Select  Committee  of   18tli  Congress,   1st  sess., 
upon  a  Memorial  to  Give  Land,  etc.,  1824,  p.  12. 

"Quoted  in  American  Journal  of  Education,  i.,  1826,  p.  432. 


152  THE  DEAF 

and  opening  the  way  to  moral  and  religious 
instruction  and  knowledge  of  the  Deity  which 
is  almost  void."  An  early  report  of  the 
American  School  ^  tells  of  the  transition 
of  their  "  imprisoned  minds  which  have  too  long 
been  enveloped  in  the  profoundest  shade  of  in- 
tellectual and  moral  darkness  to  the  cleansing 
and  purifying  light  of  Divine  Truth."  An  Ohio 
report  ^  states  that  they  "  have  come  forth  into 
the  light  of  truth,  that  truth  that  teaches  them 
that  they  possess  a  rational  and  immortal  spirit." 
In  the  address  in  behalf  of  the  New  York  In- 
stitution before  noted,^  it  is  said  of  the  deaf  that 
the  "  powers  of  torpid  and  dormant  intellects 
are  resurrected  from  an  eternal  night  of  silence." 
The  first  report  of  the  Minnesota  School  ^  refers 
to  the  deaf  as  "  liberated  from  the  winding  sheets 
of  silence  and  ignorance,"  and  tells  how  "  their 
souls  vibrate  with  such  joy  as  Lazarus  felt  when 
he  stepped  forth  from  the  gloom  of  the  grave." 
In  the  first  report  of  the  Indiana  School  ^  the 

*  1827,  p.  10. 

^1834,  p.  5. 

'Address  of  Silvanus  Miller,  loc.  cit. 

*1863,  p.  17. 

"Quoted  in  History,  1893,  p.  6.  For  other  accounts  of  the 
condition  of  the  deaf  without  education  and  the  blessings  to  be 
obtained  from  it,  see  Report  of  Kentucky  School,  1824,  p.  10; 
Ohio  School,  1842,  p.  13;  Kansas  School,  1870,  p.  12;  History 
of  Mississippi  School,  1893,  p.  3;  Southwestern  School  Journal 
(Tennessee),  i.,  1848,  p.  49;  J.  H.  Tyler,  "Duty  and  Advan- 
tages of  the  Education  of  the  Deaf",  etc.,  1843;  Sermon  by 
John  Summerfield,  in  behalf  of  the  New  York  Institution,  1822 ; 
Discourse  of  Samuel  L.  Mitchell,  Pronounced  at  Request  of  So- 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  153 

state  of  the  deaf  without  education  is  thus  con- 
trasted with  that  of  the  deaf  with  education: 

Indeed,  the  difference  between  the  uneducated  and 
the  educated  mute  is  almost  incredible.  The  former 
"  winds  his  weary  way  "  through  life  in  ignorance  and 
obscurity,  often  an  object  of  charity,  and  almost  a 
burden  to  himself;  but  the  latter,  gladdened  by  the 
genial  rays  of  knowledge  and  fitted  for  the  discharge 
of  duty,  becomes  a  blessing  to  his  friends  and  to  society, 
acts  well  his  part  as  a  member  of  the  great  human 
family,  enjoys  the  present,  and  looks  forward  to  the 
future  with  cheerfulness  and  hope. 

The  charter  of  the  Pennsylvania  Institution 
refers  to  the  desire  of  certain  citizens  "  to  restore 
the  deaf  and  dumb  to  the  ranks  of  their  species ;  " 
and  the  preamble  of  the  statutes  creating  schools 
in  Kentucky  and  other  states  contains  similar 
language.  The  purpose  of  the  Illinois  school 
is  given  in  the  organic  act,  the  language  of  that 
of  Nebraska  and  other  states  being  almost  iden- 
tical: 

To  promote  by  all  proper  and  feasible  means  the 
mental,  moral  and  physical  culture  of  that  portion  of 
the  community,  who  by  the  mysterious  dispensations 
of  Providence,  have  been  born,  or  by  disease  have  be- 
come deaf,  and  of  course  dumb,  by  a  judicious  and  well 
adapted  course  of  education,  to  reclaim  them  from  their 
lonely  and  cheerless  condition,  to  restore  them  to  the 

ciety  for  Instruction  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  New  York,  1818; 
Addresses  of  Joseph  H.  Lane  and  Ebenezer  Demorest,  before 
Legislature  of  Indiana,  1851. 


154  THE  DEAF 

ranks  of  their  species,  and  to  fit  them  to  discharge  the 
social  and  domestic  duties  of  life. 

The  object  of  the  schools  in  Wisconsin,  South 
Dakota, and  other  states  is  declared  to  be: 

To  afford  the  deaf  and  dumb  of  the  state,  so  far  as 
possible,  an  enlightened  and  practical  education,  that 
may  aid  them  to  obtain  the  means  of  instruction,  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  citizenship,  and  secure  all  the 
happiness  they  are  capable  of  obtaining. 

The  early  educators  of  the  deaf  felt  themselves 
that  they  were  indeed  carrying  the  light  to  shine 
in  a  dark  place.  In  the  language  of  one  of  the 
foremost  of  them:  ^ 

Then  the  great  triumph  of  science  and  benevolence 
over  one  of  the  most  terrible  of  human  calamities  will 
be  complete,  and  the  deaf  and  dumb,  objects  of  interest, 
but  hardly  of  compassion,  will  stand  forth  among  their 
kindred  who  hear,  heirs  of  all  the  hopes,  the  privileges 
and  the  lofty  aspirations  of  their  race. 

Extension  of  the  Means  of  Instruction  ovee  the 
Country 

Interest  in  the  education  of  the  deaf  had  thus 
become  general,  public  concern  was  awakened, 
and  movements  were  early  on  foot  in  not  a  few 
states  to  start  schools.  The  enthusiasm  aroused 
by  the  success  of  the  first  schools  only  increased 

^Harvey  Prindle  Peet,  at  first  Convention  of  American  In- 
structors, 1850,  p.  141.     See  also  Annals,  iii.,  1850,  p.  160. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  155 

the  hopes  that  others  would  be  provided  to  reach 
the  deaf  children  in  all  the  states.  A  writer  in 
the  North  American  Review  in  1834  ^  declared 
that  there  were  "  no  doubts  that  the  wants  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb  will  soon  be  supplied,  and  that 
the  public  beneficence  already  extended  to  a  por- 
tion will,  before  the  lapse  of  many  years,  be  ex- 
tended to  all." 

Nor  were  these  hopes  to  be  shattered,  for  the 
states  followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession  in 
providing  means  for  the  instruction  of  their  deaf 
youth.  Indeed,  when  we  consider  how  early 
some  of  the  newly  settled  states  began  to  devote 
attention  to  the  education  of  the  deaf — a  work 
that  was  undertaken  in  Europe  only  after  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century — we  are  per- 
suaded that  it  speaks  no  less  for  the  regard  for 
and  devotion  to  education  implanted  in  the 
breasts  of  the  American  people,  than  for  the  big- 
ness and  benevolence  of  their  hearts.  The  credit 
remains  just  as  deep,  even  though  it  has  ever 
been  the  mission  and  spirit  of  America  to  bring 
education  to  the  door  of  every  one  of  its  children, 
and  though  what  it  has  done  for  the  deaf  is  but  a 
part  of  this  great  principle. 

The  early  workers,  despite  the  preliminary 
journeys  to  Europe,  were  largely  pioneers,  and 
this  country  owes  an  immeasurable  debt  to  the 

»xxxviii.,  p.  357. 


166  THE  DEAF 

founders  and  directors  of  the  first  schools.  Many 
of  them  were  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  and  all  of 
them  were  men  of  high  ideals.  Possibly  there 
has  never  been  a  movement  undertaken  for  the 
good  of  humanity  that  has  drawn  to  it  a  more 
capable  or  earnest  band  of  men.  These  early 
workers  were  possessed  of  a  determination,  an 
ardor,  a  resourcefulness,  combined  with  scholar- 
ship and  understanding  of  no  common  order,  that 
would  have  graced  any  human  cause.  They  were 
truly  of  those  in  America  that  have  blazed  trails, 
and  to  them  belonged  those  elements  of  character 
that  are  a  pride  to  any  people.^ 

The  first  schools  were  created  by  societies  of 
private  citizens,  funds  being  contributed  from 
**  membership  fees  "  in  the  societies,  from  sub- 
scriptions and  from  other  private  donations.^ 
To  the  aid  of  these  schools  the  state  later  came 
with  appropriations;  but  while  an  oversight  and 
general  control  were  assumed  by  it,  the  schools 

^When  the  accounts  of  brave  endeavor,  and  the  rolls  of 
those  inflamed  for  human  service,  are  finally  made  up,  high 
indeed  will  stand  the  names  of  Thomas  Hopkins  Gallaudet, 
Lewis  Weld,  John  A.  Jacobs,  Abraham  B.  Hutton,  Harvey  P. 
Peet,  Collins  Stone,  Horatio  N.  Hubbell,  Thomas  Mclntyre, 
Luzerne  Rae,  Barabas  M.  Fay,  David  E.  Bartlett,  William  W. 
Turner,  Newton  P.  Walker,  Jacob  Van  Nostrand,  William  D. 
Kerr,  and  others  both  of  those  who  worked  with  them  and  who 
followed  in  their  steps. 

^  Where  the  institutions  were  under  regularly  chartered 
societies,  these  dues  were  usually  fixed  at  $5,  with  life  member- 
ship at  $50,  though  the  size  of  the  fees  varied  in  the  different 
schools.  In  the  American  School  the  office  of  vice-president 
was  created  for  those  paying  $200.  In  some  of  these  schools 
the  fees  proved  of  considerable  assistance. 


Education  in  America  157 

were  left  as  private  corporations.  With  the  es- 
tablishment, however,  of  the  Kentucky  School  in 
1823,  a  second  stage  is  reached  in  the  extension 
of  the  new  work,  the  state  now  undertaking  the 
task  itself  and  providing  the  schools  at  its  own 
initiative  and  expense.  At  first  admission  into 
the  schools  was  restricted  to  a  certain  number  of 
pupils,  often  based  upon  some  political  division 
of  the  state,  as  a  senatorial  district  in  Tennessee, 
or  a  judicial  in  Ohio.  When  such  limitations 
were  swept  away,  we  have  the  third  stage  in  the 
provision  for  the  education  of  the  deaf.  The 
fourth  and  last  stage — though  not  necessarily  in 
this  order  in  any  one  particular  state,  and  not  in 
every  case  formally  accomplished — is  attained 
when  in  Indiana  all  charges  are  removed,  and 
education  is  made  free  to  all.^  In  the  schools 
created  in  later  times  all  these  steps  were  usually 
merged  into  one:  limitations  of  any  kind  were 
mostly  omitted,  and  the  schools  were  in  general 
thrown  open  to  all  from  the  beginning.       ^ 

Thus  is  reached  the  culminative  point  in  the 
course  of  the  provision  for  the  education  of  the 
deaf    in    America.      No    longer    was    private 

^The  course  of  provision  may  be  illustrated  in  the  case  of 
the  Ohio  School.  In  1829,  at  the  beginning,  an  indigent  pupil 
was  to  be  admitted  from  each  of  the  nine  judicial  districts  of 
the  state,  "  to  be  selected  by  the  board  of  trustees  from  persons 
recommended  by  the  associate  judges  of  the  counties  where 
they  reside".  In  1830  the  number  was  increased  to  eighteen, 
in  1832  to  twenty-seven,  in  1834  to  forty-eight,  and  in  1835  to 
sixty.  In  1844  all  suitable  applicants  were  to  be  received, 
and  in  1854  all  limitations  as  to  financial  ability  were  removed. 


168  THE  DEAF 

benevolence  to  inaugurate  and  carry  on  the 
work,  but  the  state  was  coming  to  see  its  respon- 
sibility in  part,  finally  to  realize  its  full  duty  in 
making  education  free  to  all  its  deaf  popula- 
tion, just  as  it  was  free  to  the  rest  of  its  citizens.^ 

In  many  instances,  before  action  by  the  state, 
instruction  of  a  small  collection  of  deaf  children 
was  taken  up  by  a  group  of  citizens ;  ^  but  hardly 
had  this  been  done  when  as  a  rule  the  state  proved 
itself  ready  and  willing  to  move  in  and  shoulder 
the  responsibility.  These  private  schools  were 
thus  often  the  nucleii  of  the  state  institutions,  at 
first  aided  to  an  extent,  and  then  taken  over.  In 
fact,  the  private  schools  were  not  infrequently 
started  more  or  less  as  experimental  affairs,  but 
with  the  expectation  that  the  state  would  speedily 
come  to  their  help.  "  The  idea  of  the  founders 
seemed  to  be  to  give  barely  enough  to  keep  the 
school  going,  and  to  depend  upon  getting  support 
of  a  substantial  character  in  the  course  of  time."  ^ 

In  some  cases  there  were  exhibitions  of  pupils, 
either  from  the  school  which  was  hoped  to  be 
aided,  or  from  an  already  established  school  in 
another  state.  These  were  designed  to  awaken 
interest  in  the  public,  and  especially  among  the 

*In  many  instances  the  school  for  the  deaf  was  the  first 
"  benevolent "  or  "  humane  "  institution  created  by  the  state. 

2  In  several  instances  a  deaf  man  himself  came  to  a  com- 
munity and  organized  a  school. 

»Mr.  E.  S.  Tillinghast,  of  the  Oregon  School,  in  a  letter  to 
the  writer.     See  also  Report  of  Oregon  School,  1880,  p.  4. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  159 

legislators,  and  to  quicken  the  desired  action.  In 
more  than  one  instance  the  school  was  established 
at  or  near  the  state  capital  to  show  the  legislatures 
what  could  be  done  and  to  influence  their  pro- 
ceedings. Not  infrequently  memorials  or  peti- 
tions, in  some  cases  containing  a  great  number 
of  names,  were  presented  to  the  legislatures, 
praying  for  the  establishment  of  the  schools. 
Sometimes  if  doubt  as  to  the  wisdom  of  the  pro- 
posed course  seemed  to  delay  matters,  a  point 
was  to  be  gained  in  the  dispatch  as  a  preliminary 
procedure  of  a  special  committee  or  agent  to  some 
existing  school  in  another  state,  to  examine  and 
report  upon  its  work,  this  report  being,  as  was 
expected,  nearly  always  highly  favorable.^ 

But  appeals  to  these  bodies,  whatever  their 
nature,  were  rarely  turned  away,  and  usually 
secured  prompt  response.  When  action  was 
finally  to  be  obtained,  the  measure  relating  to  the 
deaf  was  passed  with  few  dissenting  votes,  some- 
times with  none  at  all.  So  eager  had  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people  now  become,  that,  if  it 
was  not  deemed  practicable  at  once  to  create  a 
state  institution,  haste  was  made  to  provide  for 
the  children  in  a  school  in  another  state  till  one 
within  their  own  borders  could  be  established.  In 
some  cases  steps  were  taken  to  this  end  by  the 

*0n  efforts  to  secure  schools,  see  Southern  Literary  Mes- 
senger, i.,  1835,  pp.  134,  201. 


160  THE  DEAF 

legislative  assemblies  of  territories  before  state- 
hood had  been  bestowed  upon  them.^ 

At  the  same  time  not  to  be  forgotten,  in  the 
narration  of  the  extension  of  the  means  of  educa- 
tion to  the  deaf  of  the  country,  is  the  real  debt 
to  private  action.  It  was  private  initiative  that 
often  brought  the  schools  into  being,  and  it  was 
private  solicitude  that  often  won  their  final  en- 
dorsement and  adoption  by  the  state.  In  not  a 
few  places  there  were  citizens  found  who  were 
willing  to  give  of  their  substance  to  forward  the 
new  work.^  For  some  of  the  schools  money  was 
not  only  subscribed,  but  it  came  also  from  the 
proceeds  of  fairs  and  concerts,  and  for  a  few  also 
from  lectures,  debates,  exhibits  of  pictures,  and 
similar  affairs;  while  exhibitions  of  the  pupils 
themselves  from  the  schools  seldom  failed  to  draw 
a  generous  offering.^     Indeed,  many  were  glad 

*It  is  to  be  noted  that  some  of  the  older  schools  did  not 
look  with  favor  upon  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  the 
schools.  The  creation  of  many  new  ones  was  sometimes 
advised  against,  it  being  declared  that  the  existing  ones  could 
answer  for  all  the  country,  and  that  pupils  would  gain  by 
attending  them.  See  Report  of  Pennsylvania  Institution,  1830, 
appendix,  p.  14;  American  School,  1824,  p.  6;  1826,  p.  4. 

'  In  some  cases  pathetic  appeals  were  made  for  money.  See 
Address  before  New  York  Forum  in  behalf  of  New  York 
Institution,  1819;  Discourse  pronounced  at  Request  of  Society 
for  the  Instruction  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  appendix  (address 
to  the  public),  1818;  Circular  of  President  and  Directors  of 
New  York  Institution,  1818;  Addresses  to  Contributors  to  the 
Pennsylvania  Asylum,  1821;  Report  of  Pennsylvania  Institu- 
tion, 1826,  appendix,  p.  19. 

'  In  New  York  exhibits  of  pupils  were  given  in  a  score  of 
cities  and  towns,  in  a  third  of  which  there  were  repetitions. 
Annals,  xviii.,  1873,  p.  80.  In  Illinois  there  were  more  than 
two  score  exhibits  given,  witnessed  by  some  50,000  persons. 
Report  of  Illinois  School,  1868,  p.  36. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  161 

of  the  opportunity  to  lend  a  hand,  and  contribu- 
tions were  tendered  not  only  by  various  individ- 
uals, but  also  by  different  societies  and  organiza- 
tions ^ — churches  probably  among  the  latter 
proving  the  most  ready  givers,  with  aid,  in  addi- 
tion, at  time  from  newspapers,  and  now  and  then 
from  a  school  or  college.  In  some  cases  funds 
were  collected  by  citizens  with  which  to  purchase 
a  site,  and  sometimes  the  land  required  was  given 
by  the  cities  themselves.  Indirect  aid  was  ex- 
tended as  well  of  not  a  few  kinds;  and  in  the 
early  schools  there  was  seldom  great  difficulty 
in  securing  reduced  transportation  on  railroads 
and  steamboats.^ 

However,  except  in  a  few  instances,  private 
assistance  in  the  aggregate  did  not  prove  great: 
as  a  rule  in  most  schools  it  was  limited,  usually 
sufficing  only  to  tide  them  over  their  nascent 
stage,  and  in  large  part  ceasing  upon  their  full 
establishment.  From  then  on  the  maintenance 
was  assumed  practically  entirely  as  a  public 
charge,  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states  un- 
dertaking themselves  to  provide  for  the  schools. 
In  a  few  cases,  however,  there  was  public  aid  of 

^In  connection  with  the  New  York  Institution  there  was  a 
society  called  the  New  York  Female  Association,  "to  aid  in 
giving  support  and  instruction  to  the  indigent  deaf  and  dumb  ", 
which  lasted  from  1825  to  1835.  It  raised  in  one  year  $1200 
for  "  unsuccessful  applicants  ".  See  Address  and  Constitution, 
1830 ;  Report  of  New  York  Institution,  1826,  p.  6. 

^  See  Report  of  Mississippi  School,  1872,  p.  17 ;  Annals,  ix., 
1857,  p.  178. 


162  THE  DEAF 

another  sort.  In  several  schools  there  were  allow- 
ances for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  from  munici- 
pal funds,  as  in  Maryland,  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York,  and  from  county,  as  in  North  Caro- 
lina and  Utah.^  But  much  the  most  important 
assistance  of  this  character  came  from  the  national 
government;  and  while  only  a  few  schools  were 
favored  by  its  action,  the  benefactions  to  those 
were  hardly  less  than  munificent.  For  the  bene- 
fit of  the  Connecticut  and  Kentucky  schools 
early  in  their  careers  Congress  granted  great 
areas  of  the  public  domain ;  and  later,  on  the  ad- 
mission of  half  a  dozen  or  so  states  in  the  West 
into  the  Union,  set  apart  extensive  tracts  for  the 
schools  to  be  established  in  them.^ 

When  the  school  for  the  deaf  had  been  for- 
mally recognized  by  the  state,  its  first  act  of 

*  In  a  few  instances,  as  in  North  Carolina,  the  counties  were 
authorized  to  raise  funds  by  a  special  tax. 

*  Aid  was  besought  of  the  national  government  by  a  number 
of  schools.  In  1826  Congress  was  asked  for  the  endowment 
of  the  institutions  then  in  being  which  had  not  already  been 
assisted.  See  Address  of  Lewis  Weld  in  the  Capitol  in  Wash- 
ington, 1828,  p.  8.  In  1833  the  Senate  passed  bills  granting 
land  to  the  schools  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio, 
but  these  failed  to  be  acted  upon  in  the  House.  Proceedings 
of  Laying  of  Corner  Stone  of  Ohio  Institution,  1864;  Report 
of  Ohio  School,  1869,  p.  52.  Later  there  were  applications 
from  individual  schools,  most  seeking  grants  of  land.  Requests 
came  from  Vermont,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Nebraska.  A  township  was  usually  desired,  though  Vermont 
asked  for  10,000  acres  for  the  benefit  of  a  hospital  for  the 
insane  and  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  blind.  See 
Laws  of  Vermont,  1851,  no.  81;  New  Jersey,  1823,  p.  124; 
Report  of  New  York  Institution,  1846,  p.  14 ;  Michigan  School, 
1858,  p.  46;  History  of  Wisconsin  School,  1893,  p.  6;  Proceed- 
ings of  Convention  of  American  Instructors,  i.,  1850,  p.  171. 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  163 

assistance  as  a  rule  was  in  the  form  of  'per  capita 
allowances  for  the  pupils,  with  only  occasionally 
a  specific  appropriation.  These  allowances  were 
in  the  beginning  small,  but  in  time  were  gradually 
increased.  It  was  usually  some  years  before  the 
policy  was  adopted  of  making  regular  appro- 
priations. In  a  few  cases,  as  in  Indiana  and 
Illinois,  when  it  was  decided  to  create  a  state 
institution,  the  first  proceedings  were,  in  lieu  of  a 
direct  appropriation,  the  levying  of  a  small  mill 
tax  upon  the  assessed  property  of  the  state.  In 
New  York  benefit  was  allowed  from  the  fines  or 
licenses  on  lotteries,  and  in  Ohio  from  the  receipts 
of  a  tax  on  auctions  in  one  of  the  counties  of  the 
state.  In  a  few  cases  the  schools  were  even 
located  where  there  appeared  the  greatest  finan- 
cial inducement,^  as  with  the  requirement  that  a 
certain  number  of  acres  of  land  should  be  donated 
for  the  school.^ 

For  the  organization  of  the  new  schools  a 
small  body  of  citizens  was  appointed,  often  the 
original  promoters  of  the  undertaking,  to  act  as 
trustees,  and  to  them  was  confided  its  direction, 
with  the  support  and  general  oversight  of  the 

^In  Indiana  several  cities  made  efforts  to  secure  the  scliool. 
In  Bloomington  $4,000  was  raised,  and  an  offer  extended  of 
a  special  local  tax  levy  of  one  cent  on  $100  of  property  for 
Its  benefit.    Armals,  vi.,  1854,  p.  150. 

=*Thus  in  Kansas  the  school  was  established  on  condition 
that  20  acres  be  granted  for  a  site,  and  150  for  its  benefit;  in 
Minnesota  that  40  acres  be  provided;  and  in  Colorado  that  5 
be  provided.  In  Indiana  the  school  was  first  only  provision- 
ally located  by  the  statute. 


164  THE  DEAF 

state  back  of  them.^  Now  and  then  the  trustees 
of  an  existing  educational  or  other  institution 
were  given  charge  as  a  temporary  arrange- 
ment.^ 

In  the  material  projection  of  the  schools,  lit- 
tle was  to  be  expected  at  the  beginning.  With 
the  meagre  resources  at  their  disposal,  the  di- 
rectors had  small  choice  in  what  was  to  be  pro- 
vided. In  not  a  few  cases  the  schools  started 
out  under  conditions  far  from  auspicious,  and 
in  some  the  circumstances  in  connection  with 
their  origin  were  quite  discouraging.^  The 
quarters  secured  for  the  schools  were  nearly  al- 
ways of  unpretentious,  and  sometimes  of  humble^ 
type.  Many  began  in  a  single  rented  room, 
and  a  few  in  a  church  building  lent  for  the  pur- 
pose. It  was  only  in  the  course  of  the  years,  as 
the  communities  grew  in  population  and  wealth, 
that  the  establishments  for  the  deaf  assumed 
appearances  in  keeping  with  their  character. 

*  In  one  or  two  instances  "  contract "  schools  were  provided 
for,  the  managers  receiving  a  certain  amount  from  the  state 
and  reserving  the  balance  left  after  the  payment  of  expenses 
as  their  compensation.  This  plan,  however,  did  not  continue 
long,  and  was  generally  condemned.  See  Annals,  iii.,  1851, 
p.  34. 

''In  Kentucky  the  school  was  placed  under  the  trustees  of 
Centre  College  at  Danville,  and  so  remained  for  fifty  years. 

^The  schools  in  Indiana  and  Tennessee  were  compelled  for 
financial  reasons  to  close  for  six  months,  and  that  in  Oregon 
for  eight  months,  shortly  after  they  had  been  opened.  Report 
of  Tennessee  School,  1847,  p.  9;  History  of  Oregon  School, 
1893,  p.  4;  Annals,  x.,  1858,  p.  106.  To  add  to  the  difficulties 
in  some  instances,  was  the  belief  that  not  enough  deaf  chil- 
dren could  be  assembled  for  a  schooL 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  165 

The  schools  for  the  deaf  were  now  in  being, 
and  were  ready  for  the  reception  of  their  pupils. 
But  what  of  these  pupils,  and  where  were  they? 
Were  they  found  at  the  doors  of  the  new  institu- 
tions, clamoring  for  admission?  The  situation 
was  hardly  this.  In  point  of  fact,  in  nearly  every 
case  the  schools  were  ahead  of  the  pupils. 
Though  in  practically  every  community  where  a 
school  was  created,  there  were  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  children  in  need  of  an  education,  these 
children,  or  rather  their  parents,  were  slow  in 
availing  themselves  of  the  privilege.  It  was  thus 
that  the  schools  when  established  had  to  wait,  as 
it  were,  for  the  coming  of  their  pupils,  and  in- 
deed, in  not  a  few  instances,  to  go  out  after  them. 

On  the  opening  of  the  schools,  none  was  found 
to  have  a  large  number  of  pupils,  and  in  most 
there  were  only  a  handful,  as  three,  four  or  five.^ 
It  was  discovered  that  it  was  a  far  from  easy 
task  to  get  the  children  in.^  The  parents  were 
in  no  small  measure  ignorant  themselves,  and  the 
real  value  of  the  school  was  not  always  readily 
understood.    Besides,  in  many  sections  the  coun- 

^Tlie  number  in  the  beginning  at  the  Kentucky  and  Texas 
schools  was  3,  at  the  New  York  and  Illinois  4,  at  the  Indiana 
and  Tennessee  6,  at  the  Hartford  7,  and  at  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
souri 1. 

2  On  the  difficulty  in  getting  the  pupils  in,  see  Report  of 
Iowa  School,  1865,  p.  12;  1868,  p.  8;  Arkansas  School,  1872, 
p.  15;  Indiana  School,  1877,  p.  15;  Kentucky  School,  1846,  p.  1; 
West  Virginia  School,  1879,  p.  10;  Illinois  School,  1854,  p.  11; 
Wisconsin  School,  1859,  p.  15;  Annals,  iv.,  1852,  p.  241. 


166  THE  DEAF 

try  was  new,  the  roads  bad,  and  the  facilities  for 
travel  scant. 

Oftentimes  in  the  course  of  the  founding  of  the 
schools,  before  any  direct  act  was  attempted,  a 
census  was  taken  of  the  deaf  of  the  state.  It  was 
also  frequently  made  the  duty  of  certain  local 
officers  as  county  clerks,  assessors,  etc.,  to  reg- 
ister and  report  prospective  pupils.  By  many 
of  the  schools  circulars  were  distributed  to  post- 
masters, tax-collectors,  ministers,  school-teachers 
and  others  to  enlist  their  help  in  reaching  deaf 
children ;  ^  and  by  certain  of  the  schools  the  news- 
papers were  even  availed  of  to  carry  their  adver- 
tisements. Sometimes  special  agents  were  sent 
out  to  scour  the  state  and  gather  in  pupils. 

In  many  of  the  schools  at  the  same  time  the 
terms  of  admission  were  carefully  prescribed,^ 
and  in  some,  especially  the  older  ones,  these  terms 
were  often  published.  Notices  of  vacancies  were 
also  in  a  few  cases  put  in  the  newspapers,  while 
in  one  or  two  instances,  as  in  Massachusetts,  it 
was  provided  that  lots  should  be  drawn  when  it 
was  found  that  the  number  of  applicants  ex- 
ceeded the  number  allowed.  In  a  large  portion 
of  the  schools  at  first  the  pupils  were  individually 
committed,  or  were  "  appointed,"  as  it  was 
called.^     It  was  usually  some  years  before  the 

^  See  Report  of  Michigan  School,  1874,  p.  43. 

*  In  many  of  the  schools  there  was,  and  still  is,  a  formal  re- 
quirement of  good  character. 

•  In  some  of  the  states  the  pupils  were  long  known  as  "  bene- 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  167 

greater  part  of  such  formalities  ceased.  Charges 
were  also  occasionally  made  at  the  beginning,^ 
later  to  be  reduced  and  in  time  to  be  abolished.^ 
In  most  of  the  schools  in  their  first  days  the 
period  of  attendance  allowed  to  the  pupils  was 
very  short,  often  being  three  or  four  years,  and 
sometimes  only  two.  Usually,  however,  after  a 
time  one  or  two  years  were  added  to  the  number 
permitted,  which  procedure  was  repeated  after 
certain  intervals,  and  the  length  of  residence  was 
thus  gradually  increased.  In  few  of  the  schools, 
moreover,  was  an  early  age  held  essential;  and, 
indeed,  in  a  considerable  number  pupils  were  not 
admitted  at  an  early  age,  the  limit  not  infre- 
quently being  ten  or  twelve.^  The  up- 
per   limit    was    high    as    well,    and    in    some 

ficiaries ".  The  power  of  appointment  was  not  infrequently 
vested  in  the  governor  of  the  state. 

^In  Tennessee  a  charge  was  at  first  made  for  board,  with 
the  result  that  no  pupil  appeared;  and  after  a  month  or  two 
this  was  removed.  Report  of  Tennessee  School,  1845,  p.  14; 
Annals,  ix.,  1857,  p.  118.  See  also  Proceedings  of  Convention 
of  American  Instructors,  iii.,  1853,  p.  169.  As  to  the  desir- 
ability of  free  transportation,  see  Report  of  Ohio  School,  1843, 
p.  11. 

*  At  the  American  School  a  charge  of  $200  was  laid  for  each 
pupil  at  first.  This  was  reduced  after  a  time  to  $150,  then  to 
$115,  then  to  $100,  and  finally  removed  altogether. 

'In  Massachusetts  the  law  for  a  number  of  years  allowed 
no  applications  under  fourteen,  while  in  Georgia  the  age  limits 
for  pupils  sent  to  Connecticut  were  from  ten  to  forty.  At  the 
first  Convention  of  American  Instructors,  it  was  agreed  that  it 
was  not  expedient  to  receive  pupils  under  ten,  while  twelve 
was  considered  more  suitable.  Proceedings,  i.,  1850,  p.  223. 
On  the  ages  of  admission  and  attendance,  see  Annals,  v.,  1852, 
p.  141;  xviii.,  1873,  p.  176;  Report  of  American  School,  1833, 
p.  23;  Iowa  School,  1865,  p.  11;  Indiana  School,  1871,  p.  19; 
Missouri   School,   1856,  p.   14;   Proceedings  of  Conference  of 


168  THE  DEAF 

cases  pupils  might  enter  up  to  thirty.  These 
age  limitations  were  also  in  turn  lowered 
in  the  course  of  time.  Thus  eventually  we  find 
the  ages  of  attendance  as  well  as  the  general 
rules  and  regulations  of  admission  conforming 
more  and  more  to  those  of  the  regular  schools. 

The  various  schools  that  have  been  created  for 
the  deaf  have  been  for  the  most  part  boarding 
institutions,  in  which  the  pupils  have  lived  during 
the  school  year.  But  beginning  in  1869,  and  in- 
creasing rapidly  since  1890,  a  system  of  day 
schools  has  been  brought  into  being,  more  on  the 
order  of  the  regular  common  schools,  and  more 
distinctly  an  integral  part  of  the  state's  educa- 
tional economy.  Such  schools,  now  over  three 
score  in  number,  have  been  established  in  fourteen 
states,  and  belong  especially  to  large  cities.  They 
may  be  regarded  in  many  respects  as  denoting  a 
new  departure  in  the  educational  treatment  of 
the  deaf,  and  as  marking  the  latest  development 
in  the  course  of  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  in  the 
country. 

In  addition,  there  have  been  created  a  class 
of  schools,  numbering  some  score  at  present, 
which  are  of  denominational  or  private  character, 
and  arcv  not  affected  by  state  control.  Finally, 
there  has  been  established  by  the  United  States 

Principals,  i.,  1868,  p.  43;  Documents  of  Senate  of  New  York, 
1838,  no.  25  (Report  of  Secretary  of  State  on  Relation  to  Deaf 
and  Dumb). 


EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA  169 

government  a  national  college  for  the  deaf  of  all 
the  country — which  may  be  called  the  crown- 
ing feature  in  the  provision  for  the  education  of 
the  deaf  in  America. 

For  the  great  number  of  the  deaf — over  five- 
sixths  of  the  total — the  institutional  schools  re- 
main the  one  means  of  instruction.  They  have 
been  created  in  all  but  a  few  of  the  states,  and  in 
those  without  them  the  children  are  sent  to  a 
school  in  a  neighboring  state.  In  some  of  the 
more  populous  states  two  or  more  schools  have 
been  estabhshed.  These  schools  are  as  a  rule 
supported  entirely  from  the  public  treasury,  and 
are  controlled  by  the  legislatures,  the  actual  ad- 
ministration being  delegated  to  boards  of  trustees 
or  other  bodies.  In  half  the  states  a  regard 
of  an  enduring  kind  has  been  manifested  for  the 
schools  in  that  provision  for  them  has  been  in- 
cluded in  the  constitutions,  and  these  states  are 
thus  committed  to  their  maintenance. 

In  the  schools  themselves  not  only  is  education 
presented  in  the  usual  sense,  but  in  practically 
all  industrial  training  has  also  been  provided  to 
no  mean  extent,  and  constitutes  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  work. 

We  have  now  traced  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  the  schools  for  the  deaf  in  the  United 
States.  The  present  organization  and  arrange- 
ments are  to  be  considered  in  the  following  chap- 


170  THE  DEAF 

ters.  We  have  found  that  the  duty  of  the 
education  of  the  deaf  has  been  recognized  in  all 
the  states  of  the  Union ;  that  to-day  everyivhere  in 
America  provision  has  been  made  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf;  and  that  to  all  the  deaf  children 
of  the  land  the  doors  of  education  are  open 
wide.^ 

*  How  well  America  has  performed  its  duty  towards  the  deaf 
has  been  generally  recognized  in  other  countries.  In  the  En- 
cyclopedia Britannica  (eleventh  edition)  the  deaf  of  America 
are  referred  to  as  the  best  educated  deaf  in  the  world.  A 
German  opinion  is  that  "  America  has  given  special  attention 
to  the  care  and  education  of  deaf-mutes  ".  American  Journal 
of  Sociology,  vii.,  1902,  p.  532.  See  also  G.  Ferreri,  "  American 
Institutions  for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf",  190S;  Education 
of  Deaf  Children,  Evidence  of  E.  M.  Gallaudet  and  A.  G.  Bell, 
Presented  to  Royal  Commission  of  the  United  Kingdom  on 
Condition  of  the  Blind,  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  etc.,  1892;  E.  M. 
Gallaudet,  Report  on  Deaf-Mute  Institutions  in  the  American 
Commission  at  the  Vienna  International  Exhibit,  1873,  Report 
of  United  States  Commissioners,  1876,  ii. ;  J.  C.  Gordon, 
"Notes  and  Observations  upon  the  Education  of  Deaf  Chil- 
dren ",  1892 ;  E.  E.  Allen,  "  Education  of  Defectives  "  in  "  Edu- 
cation in  the  United  States  ",  1900 ;  E.  G.  Dexter,  "  History  of 
Education  in  the  United  States",  1906,  p.  470;  G.  G.  Smith, 
"  Social  Pathology ",  1911,  p.  245 ;  Cyclopedia  of  Education, 
1911,  p.  257;  Education,  xviii.,  1898,  p.  417;  W.  H.  Addison, 
Report  of  a  Visit  to  Some  of  the  American  Schools  for  the 
Deaf  (the  Mosely  Commission),  1907;  Association  Review,  ii., 
1900,  pp.  70,  159,  273;  xi.,  1909,  p.  495;  Annals,  xUv.,  1899,  pp. 
177,  342,  439;  xlv.,  1900,  pp.  16,  126,  205,  297. 


CHAPTER  X 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INSTITUTIONS  AND 
GENERAL  PROVISIONS 

Arrangements  in  the  Different  States 

PROVISION  for  the  education  of  the  deaf 
is  made  by  the  different  states  as  a  general 
rule  in  local  institutions.  In  only  four 
states  are  deaf  children  sent  at  public  expense  to  a 
school  outside  for  their  instruction:  Dela- 
ware, New  Hampshire,  Nevada,  and  Wyoming. 
In  these,  owing  to  their  comparatively  small  pop- 
ulations, it  has  been  considered  more  economical 
and  satisfactory  to  contract  with  the  schoo^n 
an  adjoining  state. 

In  each  of  the  other  states  there  is  at  least  one 
institution,  or  sixty-five  in  all.  In  Connflnticut 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  ^  there  are  two, 
in  Massachusetts  three,  in  Pennsylvania  four, 
and  in  New  York  eight.  In  some  of  these 
the  schools  are  distributed  over  the  state  the  bet- 
ter to  reach  all  the  pupils.  In  the  Southern  states 
there  are  usually  separate  departments  in  *the 
regular  institutions  for  children  of  the  colored 

^The  two  institutions  here  are  the  Kendall  School  and 
Gallaiidet  College,  though  both  really  form  what  is  known  as 
the  Columbia  Institution. 

171 


"^ 


172  THE  DEAF 

race/  but  in  some  there  are  special  arrange- 
ments. In  Virginia  there  is  one  school  for  the 
white  deaf  and  blind,  and  another  for  the  colored. 
In  North  Carolina  there  is  a  school  for  the  white 
deaf,  and  another  for  the  blind  with  a  depart- 
ment for  the  colored  deaf  and  blind.  In  Ala- 
bama, Maryland,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas  each 
there  is  a  school  for  the  white  deaf  and  another 
for  the  colored  deaf  and  blind.^ 

In  nearly  all  the  states  these  schools  are  strictly 
public  institutions,  owned  by  the  state  and  sup- 
ported wholly  by  taxation,  and  are  under  the 
direct  control  and  supervision  of  the  legislature. 
In  a  few  of  the  Eastern  states  the  institutions 
are  in  private  hands  and  operated  under  their 
immediate  direction,  and  in  some  cases  supported 
in  part  by  endowment  funds,  but  at  the  same 
time  receiving  appropriations  from  the  state,  and 
subject  to  its  authority  and  general  oversight. 
They  are  thus  "  semi-public  "  or  "  quasi-public  " 
institutions,  and  will  need  a  brief  separate  treat- 

*In  Louisiana  full  action  has  not  been  taken  as  yet  for  the 
creation  of  a  special  school  for  the  colored  deaf,  though  this 
may  be  expected  soon.  See  Message  of  Governor,  1908,  p.  78. 
In  regard  to  the  value  of  the  schools  for  the  colored,  the  opin- 
ion of  the  heads  of  the  schools  in  the  Southern  states  has 
been  ascertained  by  the  Board  of  Charities  of  Louisiana.  The 
wisdom  of  the  policy  was  agreed  in  by  all,  and  the  schools 
were  reported  as  doing  well,  as  were  their  graduates.  By  one 
superintendent  it  was  stated  that  "  ignorance  is  costly  to  the 
state  in  more  ways  than  one  ".     Report,  1907,  p.  43. 

*  In  the  District  of  Columbia  and  West  Virginia  colored  chil- 
dren are  sent  to  Maryland  for  education. 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS       173 

ment,  as  will  also  the  "  dual  schools,"  where  the 
deaf  and  blind  are  educated  together. 

Semi-Public  Institutions 
The  semi-public  institutions  are  seventeen  in 
number,  and  are  found  in  six  states:  Connecti- 
cut, Maryland,  ^  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,^  and  Vermont.  Institutions  in 
these  states  have  remained  private  corporations 
from  the  time  they  were  established,  some  of  them 
being,  as  we  have  seen,  the  first  schools  that  were 
created  for  the  deaf.  A  certain  number  were  es- 
pecially favored  by  private  munificence  at  their 
beginning,  and  continued  to  be  supported  by 
private  funds  till  the  state  came  to  their  aid  and 
undertook  to  assist  by  regular  appropriations. 
Other  schools  have  been  similarly  organized,  but 
have  always  depended  largely  on  the  appropria- 
tions from  the  state.  All  of  them  are  in  the 
hands  of  societies,^  organized  and  chartered  as 
corporations  under  the  laws  of  the  state.  In  some 
cases  membership  is  open  to  those  interested 
on  the  payment  of  the  regular  dues  or  fees.^ 

^The  Maryland  School  approaches  more  nearly  a  state  in- 
stitution, though  it  is  under  a  self -perpetuating  body  of  trus- 
tees. 

^Two  schools  in  Pennsylvania  are  entirely  state  institutions, 
the  Home  for  the  Training  in  Speech  and  the  Pennsylvania 
Oral  School. 

^In  a  few  institutions  there  are  aid  or  auxiliary  societies 
composed  of  ladies,  usually  about  flfteen  in  number,  as  in  the 
New  York  Institution,  the  New  York  Institution  for  Improved 
Instruction,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Institution. 

*  These  fees  and  dues,  as  we  have  seen,  are  of  varying  size. 


174  THE  DEAF 

These  institutions,  while  corporate  bodies,  are 
under  the  authority  and  supervision  of  the  state. 
Their  relation  to  the  state  and  the  conditions 
under  which  they  exist  may  be  understood  from 
their  position  in  New  York.  Here  the  institu- 
tions were  chartered  by  the  state  as  benevolent 
societies,  the  buildings  and  grounds  being  pre- 
sented, or  the  money  for  them  collected,  by  the 
trustees,  and  the  property  reverting  to  the  state 
if  alienated  to  another  use.^  These  schools  are 
all  subsidized  from  the  state  treasury  in  per 
capita  allowances  for  the  pupils  received ;  ^  and 
to  some,  especially  the  newer  ones,  there  are 
general  appropriations  from  time  to  time  for 
buildings  and  the  like.  The  regular  grants,  how- 
ever, are  often  not  sufficient  for  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance, which  means  that  the  institutions  are  in- 
structing the  children  of  the  state,  and  maintain- 
ing them,  at  a  cost  to  which  the  state  contributes 
only  a  part.  Such  balances  are  covered  from  the 
endowment  funds  and  private  donations,  but  it 
would  seem  that  the  state  gets  a  good  bargain 
from  the  transaction.^ 

Annual  membership  dues  are  often  $5,  and  sometimes  as  high 
as  $25.  Life  membership  fees  range  from  $25  to  $100,  with 
corresponding  fees  for  patrons,  vice-presidents  and  others.  The 
highest  fee  is  that  of  life  donor  in  the  New  York  Institution 
for  Improved  Instruction,  being  $1,000. 

^  Dr.  I.  L.  Peet,  Proceedings  of  National  Conference  of  Chari- 
ties and  Corrections,  1883,  p.  415. 

=^The  annual  appropriations  are  from  $265  to  $360  for  each 
pupil,  but  not  often  over  $300  or  $325. 

•In  the  case  of  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  we  are  advised 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS       175 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  remembered  in 
connection  with  these  schools  that  in  the  matter 
of  the  education  of  certain  of  the  children  of  the 
state  this  duty  is  turned  over  to  a  private  society. 
An  anomalous  situation,  it  would  seem,  is  thus 
created,  the  state  abdicating  one  of  its  most  im- 
portant functions  as  now  conceived.  The  ques- 
tion, however,  is  not  of  great  practical  moment, 
and  the  matter  may  be  likened  to  the  general 
policy  of  the  state  when  it  contracts  out  for  any 
of  its  work  to  be  done.  If  economy  and  efficiency 
are  secured,  it  is  felt  that  there  can  be  little 
ground  for  objection.  A  more  important  ques- 
tion arises  in  the  matter  of  the  granting  of  public 
money  to  a  private  institution.  The  matter  of 
such  state  subsidies  has  already  received  con- 
siderable discussion,^  and  may  receive  even  more 
attention  in  the  future.    Notwithstanding,  these 

that  the  per  capita  appropriation  is  $32  less  than  the  actual 
cost.  See  also  Report,  1900,  p.  9;  1901,  p.  10;  1908,  p.  10.  In 
the  case  of  the  Clarke  School,  the  trustees  declare  that  the 
state  has  never  paid  the  school  for  each  pupil  the  average 
annual  cost  of  instruction  and  maintenance,  and  the  legislature 
is  repeatedly  asked  to  increase  its  appropriations.  See  Report, 
1904,  p.  8 ;  1911,  p.  9 ;  1912,  p.  8.  Of  the  American  School  we 
are  told  that  the  state  appropriation  "  has  never  been  enough 
to  meet  the  actual  cost".  Report,  1909,  p.  9.  In  the  case  of 
the  New  York  Institution  we  are  advised  that  the  cost  per 
pupil  from  1903  to  1913  has  ranged  from  $338  to  $415,  while  the 
state  appropriation  has  never  exceeded  $325;  and  that  from 
1893  to  1913  $357,579  has  been  expended  for  educational  pur- 
poses, and  $500,000  for  buildings  and  equipment,  from  the 
school's  own  funds. 

^On  this  subject,  see  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  vii., 
1901,  p.  359 ;  Report  of  Superintendent  of  Charities  of  District 
of  Columbia,  1891,  p.  11;  Proceedings  of  National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Corrections,  1911,  p.  27. 


176  THE  DEAF 

private  institutions  for  the  deaf  were  largely 
organized  before  the  present  attitude  in  the  mat- 
ter: they  have  in  some  cases  really  anticipated 
the  duty  of  the  state,  and  in  a  general  considera- 
tion of  the  subject  would  probably  be  the  last  to 
be  condemned. 

"  Dual  Schools  " 

"  Dual  schools,"  that  is,  schools  in  which  there 
are  departments  both  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind, 
are  found  in  ten  states:  California,  Colorado, 
Florida,  Idaho,  Montana,  South  Carolina,  Utah, 
Vermont,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia.^  In  a 
number  of  other  states  the  deaf  and  the  blind 
were  for  a  certain  period  educated  together, 
either  the  two  classes  being  provided  for  jointly 
from  the  first  or  a  department  for  the  blind  being 
later  created ;  but  in  time  in  these  the  two  classes 
have  been  separated,  and  distinct  schools  for  the 
blind  set  up.^ 

As  a  general  thing,  this  arrangement  of  having 
the  deaf  and  the  blind  together  in  one  school  has 
been  regarded  as  unfortunate,  and  educators  of 
both  classes  have  protested  against  it.    The  ques- 

*As  we  have  noted,  Alabama,  Maryland,  North  Carolina, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  Virginia  have  similar  arrangements  for 
their  colored  deaf  and  blind. 

2  In  New  Mexico,  however,  where  there  are  schools  for  both 
classes,  the  governor  has  advised  their  consolidation,  as  one 
institution  "  could  administer  to  the  needs  of  both  ".  Message, 
1907,  p.  21. 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS      177 

tion  has  thus  been  stated :  The  deaf  and  the  bhnd 
"  have  nothing  in  common  in  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion, and  the  bringing  of  the  two  classes  together 
is  a  prolific  source  of  friction  and  compromise."  ^ 
The  blind,  it  seems,  are  the  worst  sufferers,  as 
they  are  in  a  minority,  are  often  considered  only 
a  department  or  class  in  an  institution  designed 
primarily  for  the  deaf,  and  consequently  receive 
less  attention  than  they  should.^  However,  this 
arrangement  has  not  been  adopted  as  a  deliberate 
policy  on  the  part  of  the  state :  rather,  it  was  be- 
gun when  the  school  was  young,  pupils  of  both 
classes  few,  and  one  plant  was  thought  adequate ; 
and  was  allowed  to  continue  as  a  makeshift  till 
separate  schools  could  be  created.  As  the  states 
have  grown  in  population  and  resources,  most 
have  seen  the  wisdom  of  severing  the  blind  from 
the  deaf;  and  even  in  the  states  where  the  dual 

^  Report  of  Colorado  School,  1908,  p.  20.  See  also  Report  of 
Board  of  Charities  of  West  Virginia,  1910,  p.  209. 

^  The  educators  of  the  blind  have  particularly  arraigned  this 
plan.  At  one  of  the  first  conventions  of  the  American  Instruct- 
ors of  the  Blind,  the  following  propositions  were  enunciated: 

1.  Deaf-mutes  and  the  blind  differ  from  each  other  more  widely 
than  either  class  differs  from  those  having  all  the  senses; 

2.  the  methods  of  instruction  peculiar  to  each  are  entirely  un- 
like and  incompatible ;  3.  the  deaf  engross  the  main  attention ; 
4.  the  development  of  the  blind  department  is  retarded.  Pro- 
ceedings, 1871,  p.  87.  Educators  of  the  deaf  have  likewise 
stated  their  objections.  At  an  early  conference  of  principals, 
a  resolution  was  adopted  that  the  arrangement  was  bad,  the 
methods  being  entirely  different.  Proceedings,  ii.,  1872,  pp.  146, 
151.  See  also  Report  of  Michigan  School,  1855  (first  report), 
p.  1 ;  1880,  p.  62 ;  Louisiana  School,  1870,  p.  30.  In  times  past, 
however,  advantages  of  this  arrangement  have  been  pointed 
out.  See  Report  of  California  Institution,  1869,  p.  15;  1873, 
p.  19. 


178  THE  DEAF 

school  is  retained  it  is  probably  only  a  question 
of  time  till  provision  will  be  made  for  the  separate 
education  of  the  two  classes,  and  eventually  there 
will  be  independent  schools  for  each  in  all  the 
states. 

Peovision  foe  the  Deaf-Blind 

In  1824  at  the  school  for  the  deaf  at  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  the  first  deaf-blind  pupil  in 
America  began  to  receive  instruction.  To-day 
the  names  of  certain  illustrious  deaf-blind  persons 
are  known  over  the  civilized  world.^  Such  chil- 
dren are  provided  for  at  present  more  often  in 
schools  for  the  deaf  than  in  schools  for  the  blind, 
only  one  or  two  schools  for  the  latter  class  in- 
structing them.  The  deaf-blind,  however,  do  not 
form  a  large  class,  and  only  in  a  small  number  of 
schools  are  they  to  be  found.^  In  certain  cases 
where  the  school  is  only  for  the  deaf,  special  per- 
mission with  a  special  appropriation  has  to  be 
obtained,  but  there  has  been  little  difficulty  met 

*  See  individual  accounts  in  William  Wade's  monograph  on 
the  Deaf-Blind,  1901;  see  also  National  Magazine,  xi.,  1857, 
p.  27 ;  Review  of  Reviews,  xxv.,  1902,  p.  435 ;  Ohio  Bulletin  of 
Charities  and  Corrections,  xiii.,  1907,  p.  47;  Proceedings  of 
American  Instructors  of  the  Deaf,  xvi.,  1901,  p.  175flE. ;  Atinals, 
1.,  1905,  p.  125. 

'The  chief  schools  where  they  have  been  of  recent  years  or 
are  now  being  instructed  are  the  New  York  Institution,  the 
Pennsylvania  Institution,  the  Western  Pennsylvania  Institu- 
tion, and  the  schools  in  Ohio,  Mississippi,  Kentucky,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  Colorado,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and 
Texas.  The  number  in  any  one  school  at  one  time  seldom 
exceeds  two  or  three,  most  often  there  being  but  one. 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS       179 

here  from  the  legislatures.  To  certain  of  the  deaf- 
blind  individual  benefactions  have  been  made,  as 
legacies,  donations  and  subscriptions,  sometimes 
given  to  the  institutions  to  hold  in  trust;  and  in 
some  cases  these  funds  are  for  life. 

Provision  for  the  Feeble-minded  Deaf 

In  many  of  the  schools  for  the  deaf  a  problem 
has  arisen  in  connection  with  a  number  of  feeble- 
minded children  more  or  less  defective  in  speech 
or  hearing  who  have  sought  to  gain  admittance. 
Educators  of  the  deaf  have  been  called  upon  to 
give  considerable  attention  to  this  class,  and  it 
has  been  a  serious  question  what  to  do  with 
them.^  Many  of  those  who  have  applied  at  the 
institutions  have  been  denied.  Some  have  been 
allowed  to  enter,  and  their  presence  in  the  schools 
has  constituted  a  difficult  problem.^  It  is  felt  by 
those  concerned  in  the  education  of  the  deaf  that 
they  are  out  of  place  here,  and  that  they  should 
be  removed  to  a  regular  institution  for  the  f eeble- 

^A  considerable  proportion  of  such  children  are  rather 
dumb  than  deaf,  having  some  oral,  as  well  as  mental,  defect. 

^On  this  question,  see  especially  Report  of  Illinois  School, 
1860,  p.  15;  Michigan  School,  1887,  p.  25;  Maryland  School, 
1885,  p.  13;  1897,  p.  13;  Mississippi  School,  1909,  p.  24;  Min- 
nesota Companion,  of  Minnesota  School,  Nov.  22,  1911;  Re- 
port of  Board  of  Charities  of  New  York,  1912,  i.,  p.  144.  Of 
the  Alabama  School,  it  is  said  that  it  "  has  turned  away  a 
number  of  these  feeble-minded  children  during  the  past  two 
years".  Report,  1904,  p.  21.  In  Ohio  there  are  stated  to  be 
a  hundred  such  children.  Report  of  Ohio  School,  1909,  p.  17. 
In  another  state  there  are  said  to  be  150  feeble-minded  deaf. 
Annals,  liv.,  1909,  p.  444. 


180  THE  DEAF 

minded,  or  should  otherwise  be  specially  provided 
for.^ 

Government  of  the  Different  Institutions 

The  government  of  schools  for  the  deaf  is  prac- 
tically the  same  in  the  different  states.  They 
are,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  hands  of  boards  of 
trustees,  boards  of  directors,  boards  of  managers, 
or  boards  of  visitors,  as  they  are  variously  termed. 
The  semi-public  institutions,  as  we  have  seen, 

*In  1910  the  census  reported  294  deaf  persons  in  institu- 
tions for  the  feeble-minded,  or  1.4  per  cent  of  all  their  in- 
mates. Insane  and  Feeble-minded  in  Institutions,  1914,  p.  92. 
It  has  also  been  estimated  that  five  per  cent  of  the  deaf  are 
feeble-minded.  Proceedings  of  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Corrections,  1906,  p.  254ff.  On  the  subject  of  the  feeble-minded 
deaf  in  institutions,  Mr.  Cyrus  E.  White,  of  the  Kansas  School, 
sent  letters  to  the  heads  of  55  schools,  receiving  replies  from 
45.  No  state,  it  was  found,  had  made  special  provision  for  the 
feeble-minded  deaf.  It  vs^as  the  general  agreement  that  they 
should  be  in  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded,  one  superin- 
tendent declaring  that  "  f eeble-mindedness  is  a  better  classi- 
fication than  deafness".  Another  superintendent  suggested 
the  establishment  of  such  an  institution  in  a  central  state,  to 
which  the  different  states  could  send  suitable  cases.  See 
Annals,  Iv.,  1910,  p.  133.  A  committee  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Society  for  the  Advancement  of  the  Deaf  has  found  that 
all  of  the  three  feeble-minded  institutions  in  this  state  are 
crowded,  and  that  there  is  no  hope  for  the  feeble-minded 
deaf  in  them.  Proceedings,  xxiv.,  1910,  p.  9.  In  one  institu- 
tion for  the  feeble-minded  there  are  said  to  be  twenty  deaf 
feeble-minded.  Annals,  liv.,  1909,  p.  444.  In  the  institution  for 
the  feeble-minded  in  Iowa  a  special  class  of  such  inmates  was 
organized  in  1912.  Ibid.,  Iviii.,  1913,  p.  107.  It  is  to  be  re- 
membered in  this  connection  that  in  many  states  there  are 
no  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded.  Educators  of  the  deaf 
have  often  been  instrumental  in  securing  the  creation  of  such 
institutions.  See  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American  In- 
structors, iv.,  1S57,  p.  227.  In  a  few  states,  as  Illinois,  Min- 
nesota and  Washington,  departments  for  the  feeble-minded 
have  been  created  in  schools  for  the  deaf,  the  feeble-minded 
being  removed  later.  In  Montana  a  department  is  still  main- 
tained. 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS      181 

were  started  as  private  concerns  under  private 
boards  of  directors.  These  boards  still  exist,  and 
control  the  affairs  of  the  institutions,  having  full 
powers  but  subject  to  such  regulation  as  the 
state  may  direct.  Such  boards  are  usually  self- 
perpetuating  bodies,  though  in  some  cases  the 
governor  has  been  allowed  to  name  a  part.  In 
the  American  School  the  governors  and  secre- 
taries of  state  of  the  New  England  states  are  eoo- 
officio  directors.  In  the  case  of  some  schools,  as 
the  Pennsylvania  Institution,  where  membership 
is  open  to  any  one  on  the  payment  of  the  dues, 
the  governing  board  is  elected  by  the  members 
of  the  society  or  corporation.^  In  all  these 
boards  the  members  serve  without  compensation. 
Their  size  varies  considerably,  but  they  are 
usually  large,  having  in  some  cases  over  twenty 
members.^ 

Where  the  school  is  strictly  a  state  institution, 
the  board  is  usually  appointed  by  the  governor, 
sometimes  with  the  approval  of  the  state  senate.^ 
In  a  few  cases  the  boards  are  elected  by  the  legis- 

^The  Columbia  Institution  is  considered  a  corporation,  its 
governing  board  being  composed  of  nine  members,  one  of 
whom  is  a  senator  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Senate, 
and  two  members  of  the  House  appointed  by  the  Speaker, 
while  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  patron. 

''In  the  New  York  Institution  and  the  New  York  Institu- 
tion for  Improved  Instruction  the  number  Is  21,  and  in  the 
Maryland  School,  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  and  the  West- 
ern Pennsylvania  Institution,  27. 

^  Such  is  the  case  in  Alabama,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico, 
North  Carolina,  Rhode  Island,  and  Utah.  Confirmation  by  the 
Senate  is  also  usual  with  boards  of  control. 


182  THE  DEAF 

lature,  as  in  Georgia  and  Tennessee.  In  Mon- 
tana appointment  is  made  by  the  state  board  of 
education.  In  several  of  the  states  the  governor 
or  some  other  pubhc  officer,  most  often  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  is  a  member  eoc- 
officio}  These  boards  also  as  a  rule  serve  with- 
out compensation,  and  are  paid  only  for  expenses 
actually  incurred.^  Their  size  is  smaller  than 
that  of  the  corporate  boards,  usually  consisting 
of  from  three  to  seven  members,  though  in  a  few 
cases  they  may  go  beyond  the  latter  figure.  They 
are  appointed  to  serve  two,  three,  four  or  five 
years,  and  in  a  few  cases  even  longer.  In  states 
where  the  members  are  elected  by  the  legislature, 
the  term  is  usually  indefinite;  and  in  one  or  two 
states,  as  in  Alabama,  the  board  is  self -perpetu- 
ating.^ 

In  eight  states  the  institutions  are  under  special 
boards  of  their  own,  without  supervision  or  regu- 
lation from  other  bodies:  Alabama,  District  of 
Columbia,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico, 
South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  Utah.  In  eighteen 
states  the  schools  are  under  special  boards  of  trus- 

*  On  rare  occasions  a  deaf  man  himself  is  made  a  member  of 
the  board. 

*  In  a  few  states  compensation  is  allowed,  as  in  Indiana, 
Montana,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  West  Virginia. 

'  On  the  arrangements  in  the  several  states,  see  especially 
Annals,  xlviii.,  1903,  p.  348;  Iviii.,  1913,  p.  327.  See  also  Pro- 
ceedings of  American  Instructors,  iv.,  1857,  p.  199;  vii.,  1870, 
p.  144 ;  ix.,  1878,  pp.  195,  217 ;  Report  of  Royal  Commission  on 
the  Blind,  Deaf  and  Dumb,  etc.,  1889,  iiL,  p.  456£e. 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS       183 

tees,  while  the  state  board  of  charities — or  what- 
ever the  official  title — may  visit,  inspect,  super- 
vise, advise,  or  may  otherwise  be  connected  with 
them:  California,  Connecticut,  Idaho,  Indiana, 
Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, Missouri,  Montana,  New  York,  North 
Carolina,  Oklahoma,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee, 
Virginia,  and  West  Virginia.  It  may  be  noted 
that  such  central  boards — including  the  state 
boards  of  control — are  found  in  thirty-nine  states, 
and  in  all  but  five  have  some  connection  with  the 
schools.^  In  eleven  states  the  schools  are  directly 
under  the  state  boards  of  control,  central  boards 
or  bodies  with  similar  powers,  no  special  or  local 
board  intervening:  Arkansas,  Florida,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon, 
South   Dakota,   Washington,    and   Wisconsin.^ 

*In  certain  of  these  states,  however,  as  Idaho,  Indiana, 
Maine,  Minnesota,  Montana,  and  West  Virginia,  the  boards 
of  charities  or  central  boards  have  only  more  or  less  financial 
concern,  the  statutes  usually  referring  to  some  such  connec- 
tion with  the  several  state  institutions,  though  not  always 
mentioning  them  by  name.  In  one  or  two  states,  as  Rhode 
Island,  there  is  connection  with  a  board  of  purchases  and 
supplies.  In  Minnesota  there  is  also  a  board  of  visitors  for 
state  institutions,  exerting  rather  a  moral  supervision. 

'The  duties  of  such  boards  may  be  indicated  from  the  fol- 
lowing extract  in  a  letter  to  the  writer  from  the  Secretary  of 
the  Wisconsin  Board:  The  board  "appoints  the  chief  officers, 
purchases  all  the  supplies  for  the  institutions,  formulates  the 
provisions  under  which  the  institutions  are  managed,  and  has 
almost  unlimited  power  with  reference  to  the  institutions ". 
The  boards  thus  have  practically  complete  control  of  the 
public  institutions  of  the  state,  and  in  some  cases  state  uni- 
versities have  come  within  their  direction.  The  boards  have 
come  especially  into  favor  in  states  of  the  West  and  Middle 
West.    In  their  favor  it  is  claimed  that  they  secure  economy, 


184  THE  DEAF 

In  some  of  the  states,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
schools  are  related  to  the  state  department  of 
education.  In  four  states  they  are  under  boards 
of  trustees,  with  supervision  only  by  this  depart- 
ment: Colorado,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  and 
Rhode  Island.  In  Idaho  and  New  Jersey  the 
schools  are  directly  under  the  department,  ^ 
though  in  the  former  there  is  also  connection  with 
another  state  board.  In  Montana  the  board  of 
trustees  is  appointed  by  the  department.  In  In- 
diana and  Oklahoma  the  schools  have  boards  of 
trustees  and  are  under  the  department  of  educa- 
tion, but  with  inspection  also  by  the  department 
of  charities.  In  New  York  and  North  Carolina 
there  is  supervision  both  by  the  department  of 
education  and  of  charities.  In  several  states 
the  board  of  trustees  includes  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  as  a  member  ex- 
officio,  as  in  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Minnesota, 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia.  In 
Kansas  the  school  is  under  the  state  board  of 
administration  for  educational  institutions,  in- 
cluding the  university,  normal  school  and  agri- 
cultural college,  and  in  Florida  the  school  is  under 

accuracy,  better  discipline  and  more  equitable  appropriations, 
introduce  business  methods,  relieve  the  heads  of  schools  from 
financial  problems,  visit  other  states,  and  keep  in  touch  with 
the  people.  See  University  of  Nebraska  Studies,  Oct.,  1905. 
The  evolution  of  state  control  is  also  here  traced.  See  also 
Bulletin  of  Ohio  Board  of  Charities,  Dec.,  1908,  xiv.,  6. 

^  In  Iowa  the  school  for  the  blind  is  under  the  board  of 
education. 


PROVISIONS  FOR  INSTITUTIONS       185 

the  board  of  control  of  state  educational  institu- 
tions, while  in  Arizona  the  school  is  a  department 
of  the  state  university.^ 

Procedure  in  States  without  Institutions 

In  states  where  pupils  are  sent  to  schools  out- 
side the  state,  appointments  and  commitments 
are  usually  made  in  the  East  by  the  respective 
governors,  and  in  the  West  by  the  boards  of 
education  or  of  charities.  In  Delaware  the  gov- 
ernor appoints  pupils  to  outside  schools,  the  state 
supreme  court  having  first  recommended.  In 
New  Hampshire  the  governor  recommends,  while 
the  children  are  placed  by  the  board  of  con- 
trol.^ In  Wyoming  the  education  of  deaf  chil- 
dren is  directed  by  the  board  of  charities  and 
reforms,  and  in  Nevada  by  the  state  department 
of  education.^ 

^In  nearly  all  the  states  the  schools  were  placed  at  first 
in  the  hands  of  special  boards  of  trustees,  with  connection  with 
no  other  bodies,  and  it  was  only  later  that  any  change  was 
brought  about.  In  some  states  there  have  been  various  ex- 
periments in  the  organization  of  governing  boards  and  in  the 
number  of  members  they  were  to  contain.  Several  schools 
at  their  beginning  have  been  put  under  the  direction  of  a 
state  educational  institution,  as  the  university  in  Utah,  and 
the  normal  school  in  Oklahoma.  In  a  few  states  the  schools 
have  been  placed  under  certain  state  officers,  as  in  New 
Mexico  and  Oregon.  In  Washington  the  first  board  of  trustees 
of  the  school  consisted  of  a  physician,  a  lawyer  and  a  practical 
educator. 

2  We  have  already  noted  that  the  colored  deaf  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  and  West  Virginia  are  sent  to  an  outside 
school. 

« In  regard  to  the  organization  of  the  several  boards  that 
have  to  do  with  the  education  of  the  deaf,  it  may  be  stated 


186  THE  DEAF 

that  in  some  states,  as  in  Ohio  and  Indiana,  the  law  restricts 
the  number  that  may  be  of  any  one  political  party.  In  con- 
nection with  the  government  of  schools  for  the  deaf,  the 
saddest  feature  has  too  often  been  the  political  influ- 
ences which  have  been  allowed  to  become  factors  in  the  con- 
ducting of  some  of  them.  In  certain  instances  the  playing  of 
"  politics  "  has  been  of  serious  moment,  and  with  incalculable 
harm  to  the  work  of  the  schools.  In  some  cases  the  adminis- 
tration of  schools  has  been  considered  legitimate  spoils  to  the 
party  in  power,  and  appointments  have  been  made  as  a  matter 
of  reward,  and  removals  as  a  matter  oL  punishment.  The  evil 
effect  of  such  procedure  it  is  hard  to  overestimate,  and  indeed 
in  an  enlightened  land  it  is  even  difficult  of  credence.  Public 
opinion  should  severely  condemn  all  attempts  at  political  inter- 
ference in  the  work  of  the  education  of  the  deaf,  and  those 
seeking  to  promote  it  should  be  dealt  with  befittingly.  Hap- 
pily, however,  such  conduct  seems  now  on  the  decline  in  the 
schools,  and  it  may  earnestly  be  hoped  that  the  end  is  not  far 
in  the  future. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    DAY   SCHOOL   FOR   THE   DEAF 
Inception  and  Growth  of  the  Day  School 

A  SMALL  number  of  the  institutions  for  the 
deaf  had  begun  as  day  schools,  the  pupils 
living  away  from  the  school  outside  school 
hours,  and  had  continued  so  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period.  The  schools  were  then  in  an  ex- 
perimental stage,  and  this  plan  came  first  to 
hand.  In  the  course  of  time  it  was  found  that 
this  feature  was  not  practicable,  as  the  pupils 
were  often  far  scattered,  and  the  boarding  ar- 
rangement was  accordingly  adopted.^  This  was 
the  policy  finally  chosen  in  all  the  states  having 
schools.  Later,  however,  when  the  states  had 
grown  in  population,  and  in  some  of  the  cities 
there  were  found  not  a  few  deaf  children,  the 
demand  was  renewed  for  day  schools.^    The  re- 

^The  New  York  Institution,  the  Pennsylvania  Institution 
and  the  Western  Pennsylvania  Institution  notably  started  out 
as  day  schools,  the  first  remaining  so  for  eleven  years.  In 
some  of  the  institutions  also  there  have  been  at  times  day 
school  pupils  in  attendance. 

='Day  schools  have,  moreover,  been  fostered  and  supported 
to  a  great  extent  by  advocates  of  what  is  known  as  the  oral 
method,  in  opposition  to  the  manual,  or  sign  method,  which 
had  been  largely  the  method  hitherto  employed  in  the  Institu- 
tions. The  day  school  may  even  be  said  to  have  entered  the 
field  in  part  as  a  protest  against  this  method. 

187 


188  THE  DEAF 

suit  has  been  the  beginning  and  development  of 
a  system  of  day  schools  in  a  number  of  states; 
and  they  have  come  to  occupy  part  of  the  field 
formerly  covered  by  the  state  institutions  alone. 
Of  the  day  schools  now  existing,  the  Horace 
Mann  School,  of  Boston,  which  was  established 
in  1869,  is  accredited  with  being  the  initial  one.^ 
Two  others  were  opened  before  1890,  while  from 
1891  to  1900  there  were  22  started,  and  since 
1901,  40,  making  65  in  all  now.^  These  schools 
are  found  in  fourteen  states,  but  the  movement 
has  reached  its  greatest  growth  in  the  Middle 
West,  especially  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan. 
In  some  of  the  states  special  laws  have  been  en- 
acted, providing  for  the  establishment  of  day 
schools.^ 

Design  and  Scope  of  Day  Schools 

The  day  school  for  the  deaf  is  still  sometimes 
regarded  as  an  experiment,  while  its  advocates 
insist  that  its  success  has  been  demonstrated. 

*A  day  school  was  started  in  Pittsburg  two  months  pre- 
viously; but  it  was  soon  made  into  the  Western  Pennsylvania 
Institution.     Annals,  xv.,  1870,  p.  165. 

*  A  number  of  day  schools  which  were  started  have  been 
discontinued,    but  there   were  never   so   many   as   at  present. 

'Wisconsin  was  the  first  state  to  have  a  day  school  law, 
which  was  enacted  in  1885.  Bills  were  offered  in  1881  and 
1883,  but  were  defeated.  The  movement  in  this  state  has 
been  in  large  part  due  to  the  activities  of  the  Wisconsin  Pho- 
nological Institute  to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the 
Deaf,  an  organization  formed  in  1879.  The  question  has  even 
been  considered  in  this  state  of  abolishing  the  state  school  as 
a  boarding  institution.  See  Public  Opinion,  xxv.,  1898,  no.  16; 
Association  Review,  iii.,  1901,  p.  193. 


DAY  SCHOOLS  189 

Among  school  authorities  in  cities  especially, 
pleas  for  the  establishment  of  day  schools  are 
often  listened  to  with  favor,  and  there  is  fre- 
quently a  tendency  to  give  them  at  least  a  trial. 
General  bodies  interested  in  education  or  the 
public  welfare  are  likewise  inclined  to  counte- 
nance day  schools,  largely  for  the  reason  that  they 
are  opposed  to  the  institution  idea,  and  would 
place  as  many  children  as  possible  in  the  regular 
schools.  An  illustration  of  this  view  is  found  in 
the  Report  on  Children  of  the  National  Confer- 
ence of  Charities  and  Corrections  in  1906.^ 

Institutional    care   of   healthy,    normal    children    is 

objectionable Institutional  care  for  educational 

purposes  is  necessary  for  a  portion  of  the  deaf  and 

blind   children but   it   is    recognized   that   in 

large  cities  public  schools  can  be  provided  for  many  deaf 
and  blind  children. 

By  some  it  is  believed  that  in  time  the  day 
school  will  supplant  the  large  institution,  so  far 
at  least  as  large  cities  are  concerned,  and  that 
the  deaf,  and  the  blind  as  well,  will  not  be  dif- 
ferentiated from  the  pupils  in  the  regular  schools. 
Separate  apartments  and  special  teachers  will  be 
provided  for  them,  but  in  all  public  school  sys- 
tems these  classes  will  be  actual  factors. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  maintained  that  there 
is  an  abundant  field  for  both  day  school  and  in- 

*  Proceedings,  p.  88. 


190  .  THE  DEAF 

stitution.  The  former  should  only  supplement 
the  work  of  the  latter,  especially  in  reaching 
children  that  cannot  otherwise  be  brought  into 
school.  The  reason  why  the  day  school  is  called 
into  being  is  thus  given  by  an  educational  author- 
ity of  one  city:  ^ 

Institutions  that  care  for  these  children  throughout 
the  entire  year,  that  feed,  clothe  and  educate  them,  that 
render  skilful  and  prompt  medical  attention,  and  afford 
uplifting  social  advantages — all  under  one  roof — have 
a  worthy  place  under  our  social  and  educational 
systems ;  but  these  institutions  cannot  care  for  all  the 
unfortunate  children  in  need  of  education. 

It  is  also  suggested  that  it  might  be  arranged 
that  day  schools  should  keep  pupils  during  their 
early  years,  as  from  five  to  nine  years  of  age, 
after  which  time  they  could  enter  the  institution, 
and  be  placed  in  graded  classes  and  in  a  suitable 
trade  school.^  Hence  it  is  pointed  out  that  the 
day  school  and  institution  should  not  be  antag- 
onistic, that  their  interests  are  common  at  bottom, 
and  that  they  should  work  hand  in  hand,  with- 
out friction  or  misunderstanding. 

*Mr.  C.  W.  Edson,  Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools  of 
New  York,  Charities  and  the  Commons,  xix.,  1908,  p.  1357. 
See  also  Report  of  Illinois  Institution,  1874,  p.  65. 

=  See  Report  of  Washington  State  School,  1910,  p.  6.  A 
like  solution  was  offered  before  the  National  Educational 
Association  in  1903.  Certain  children  might  be  "  trained  in 
special  schools  and  live  at  home  if  possible  up  to  the  age  of 
adolescence,  when  they  may  acquire  trades  at  special  institu- 
tions maintained  bj  the  state  ".    Proceedings,  p.  1004. 


DAY  SCHOOLS  191 

The  day  school  plan  has  not  as  yet  been  fol- 
lowed in  a  large  number  of  states ;  yet  as  these 
schools  are  being  looked  upon  with  more  and 
more  favor  by  city  boards  of  education,  and  as 
in  the  centers  of  population  there  is  said  to  be 
a  need  for  them,  it  is  not  improbable  that  they 
may  be  extended  much  farther  in  the  future.  It 
is  doubtful,  however,  if  very  soon  they  will  spread 
beyond  the  large  cities ;  and  states  without  great 
cities  may  be  without  such  schools  for  many  years 
at  least.^ 

Extent  and  Organization  of  Day  Schools 

The  day  schools,  numbering  65  in  all,  as  we 
have  seen,  are  found  in  the  states  of  California, 
Georgia,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Wis- 
consin. In  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Massachusetts, 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  and  Oregon  each  there  is 
but  one  school,  in  New  Jersey  and  Washington 
each  2,  in  New  York  3,  in  California  4,  in  Ohio 
and  Illinois  each  5,  in  Michigan  14,  and  in  Wis- 
consin 24.  Where  only  one  day  school  is  found  in 
a  state,  it  is  located  usually  in  the  largest  city 
(Atlanta,  New  Orleans,  Boston,  St.  Paul,  St. 
Louis,  and  Portland),  while  the  two  schools  of 

*  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin 
schools  have,  under  the  operation  of  the  state  law,  been  or- 
ganized in  comparatively  small  towns. 


192  THE  DEAF 

New  Jersey  are  in  Newark  and  Jersey  City,  the 
two  of  Washington  in  Seattle  and  Tacoma,  and 
the  three  of  New  York  in  New  York  City.  Of 
the  five  schools  in  Illinois,  four  are  in  Chicago. 

In  six  of  these  states,  namely,  California, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  Wis- 
consin, there  are  special  state  laws  under  which 
the  schools  are  established  and  operated.^  By 
such  laws  it  is  generally  provided  that  where 
there  are  a  certain  number  of  deaf  children, 
usually  three,^  a  school  may,  on  application  of 
the  local  school  trustees  or  district  board,  be  or- 
ganized by  the  state  department  of  education.^ 
The  minimum  age  for  such  children  is  often  three. 
A  stated  sum  is  frequently  allowed  for  each  pupil, 
as  $150.*  In  the  remaining  eight  states  the 
schools  are  organized  and  directed  by  local  school 
authorities,  without  assistance  from  legislative 
statute. 

These  schools  are  supported  by  local  funds 
or  by  state  and  local  funds  together.  The  latter 
is  the  more  common  procedure,  and  in  the  case 

*  Efforts  have  been  made  in  several  other  states  to  secure 
laws.  In  Ohio  in  1902  the  state  law  was  declared  unconsti- 
tutional, as  being  class  legislation  in  granting  special  aid  to 
the  cities  of  Cleveland  and  Cincinnati.  See  Report  of  Ohio 
School,  1903,  p.  14. 

'In  California  the  number  is  five,  and  in  New  Jersey  ten. 

'  In  Ohio  the  state  commissioner  of  education  may  appoint 
and  remove  teachers,  and  inspect  schools.  In  Wisconsin  the 
state  superintendent  appoints  inspectors,  and  the  county  judge 
may  compel  the  establishment  of  schools. 

*In  Wisconsin  $100  additional  is  allowed  for  the  board  of 
children  who  move  to  a  town  to  attend  a  school. 


DAY  SCHOOLS  193 

of  schools  operating  under  a  state  law,  it  is  the 
usual,  but  not  the  necessary,  practice.  The 
schools  in  six  states,  namely,  Georgia,  Illinois, 
Louisiana,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  and  New  York, 
are  thus  maintained  only  by  local  funds  of  the 
city  or  county,  the  remainder  receiving  aid  in 
whole  or  in  part  from  the  state.^  The  school  in 
Minnesota  and  one  in  California  are  aided  by 
private  contributions.  In  nearly  all  cases  car- 
fare is  provided  to  and  from  school  when  nec- 
essary. 

In  the  day  schools  special  buildings  are  not 
usually  provided,  separate  classes  being  created 
in  the  regular  school  buildings ;  but  in  some  of  the 
larger  cities  there  are  special  buildings,  known  as 
distinct  schools,  in  which  the  class-rooms  are  for 
the  different  grades  of  deaf  pupils. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  the  day  schools  in 
1912-1913  was  1,942.  The  smallest  schools  have 
but  three  pupils,  while  the  largest  one,  in  Chicago, 
has  307,  the  number  usually  depending  on  the 
size  of  the  city.  The  method  employed  in  the  day 
schools  is  exclusively  the  oral  with  but  two  excep- 
tions.^ In  all  but  a  few  certain  industries  are 
also  taught,  or  more  or  less  of  manual  training  is 
given. 

*Iii  Massachusetts  a  direct  appropriation  of  $150  per  capita 
is  made  by  tlie  state. 

*The  methods  employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  are 
treated  of  in  Chapter  XIX. 


194  THE  DEAF 

Aeguments  for  the  Day  School 

The  great  argument  for  the  day  school  is 
that  it  is  not  well  that  children  be  "  institution- 
alized." The  institution  life  is  said  not  to  be  the 
normal  life,  and  its  habits  and  associations  are 
not  in  accord  with  the  principles  now  being 
largely  held  in  America.  It  is  coming  to  be  more 
and  more  realized  that  the  home  should  always 
be  the  center  of  interest  and  attachment  in  the 
well  established  community,  and  that  the  char- 
acter and  influence  of  the  family  should  be  main- 
tained unimpaired.  In  connection  with  orphan 
and  other  child-caring  agencies,  a  greater  em- 
phasis than  ever  before  is  being  put  on  the  ques- 
tion of  how  to  reduce  the  life  to  one  of  normality, 
and  the  "  placing-out "  of  dependent  children  in 
homes  where  they  can  grow  up  as  normal  children 
is  now  a  popular  faith.  The  great  watchword  to- 
day in  intelligent  and  constructive  philanthropy 
is  the  "  ideal  of  the  normal,"  and  it  is  on  this 
ground  that  the  institution  is  declared  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  standard  of  the  highest  interests 
of  society.  Even  though  a  child  should  profit  in 
the  institution,  and  even  though  he  should  be  sent 
out  into  the  world  strong  and  self-reliant,  yet 
while  in  the  institution,  he  is  out  of  line,  and  is 
just  so  far  displaced  from  the  ideal  of  the  normal; 
and  even  though  the  institution  is  cleanlier,  more 
sanitary  and  otherwise  better  equipped  than  the 


DAY  SCHOOLS  195 

quarters  from  which  the  child  comes,  still  the 
institution  cannot  be  justified,  for  no  solution  can 
be  acceptable  if  in  the  end  it  results  in  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  home/ 

More  specific  charges  are  also  brought  against 
the  institution.  Here  life  for  the  inmates  is  made 
too  easy,  and  little  can  be  known  by  them  of  the 
actual  struggles  of  the  world.  The  life  is  ma- 
chine-like, and  all  is  routine  clockwork.  By  the 
discipline,  which  is  necessary,  much  of  the  spon- 
taneity of  growing  children  is  destroyed,  and  the 
surroundings  are  pervaded  with  the  spirit  of 
uniformity,  "  solidarity  "  and  "  dead  levelism." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  children  fail  to  learn  many 
important  lessons  in  domestic  economy  which 
would  be  before  them  every  day  in  the  home ;  and 
they  lose  the  attitude  towards  life,  morally  and 
socially,  which  is  given  by  the  home.^ 

The  arguments  for  the  day  school  may  be 
stated  more  concretely  yet.  The  special  day 
school  may  be  co-ordinated  with,  or  made  a  part 
of,  the  state's  educational  system,  standing  on  a 
level  with  its  other  schools.  Deaf  children  here 
come  to  feel  their  place  in  the  normal  world,  while 

*  The  importance  of  this  is  accentuated  in  the  present  appre- 
hensions concerning  the  dissolving  and  loosening  of  the  ties  of 
the  home,  indicated  in  more  ways  than  one  in  present  pro- 
grams of  social  work. 

2  See  A.  G.  Warner,  "American  Charities",  rev.  ed.,  1908, 
p.  283 ;  R.  R.  Reeder,  "  How  Two  Hundred  Children  Live  and 
Learn  ",  1910,  pp.  57,  88 ;  "  Philanthropy  and  Social  Progress  ", 
1893,  p.  172fle. 


196  THE  DEAF 

people  in  general  become  more  ready  to  regard 
them  in  a  proper  manner.  These  children  at  the 
same  time  are  not  made  strangers  to  their  own 
family  circles  and  communities ;  and  certain  ones, 
by  a  school  nearer  home  and  consequently  more 
acceptable  to  their  parents,  may  be  reached  who 
would  otherwise  possibly  never  enter  an  institu- 
tion. 

In  the  way  of  cost  the  balance  is  distinctly  on 
the  side  of  the  day  school.  With  no  costly  special 
plant  necessary,  'and  with  no  charges  to  be  in- 
curred for  food  supplies,  attendants  and  the 
like,  it  appears  to  decided  advantage  in  the  mat- 
ter of  economy  in  comparison  with  an  institution; 
and  its  normal  expenditures  approach  nearer 
those  of  the  regular  schools.  At  present  the  dif- 
ference between  the  cost  per  pupil  in  the  day 
schools  and  in  the  institutions  is  the  difference 
between  $120  and  $277.^ 

*It  is  claimed  that  in  Wisconsin  with  the  centralization 
plan  of  a  state  institution  one-third  of  the  deaf  children 
failed  to  be  reached,  and  that  by  the  day  school  there  is  a 
saving  to  the  state  of  $20,000  a  year.  Proceedings  of  Na- 
tional Educational  Association,  1907,  p.  986.  See  also  iUd., 
1897,  p.  96;  1901,  p.  870;  1910,  p.  1039;  Report  of  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  1881,  p.  ccxi. ;  P.  A.  Emery,  "  Plea 
for  Early  Mute  Education,"  1884;  Improvement  of  the  Wis- 
consin System  of  Education  of  Deaf  Children,  1894;  Public 
School  Classes  for  Deaf  Children:  Open  Letter  from  Chicago 
Association  of  Parents  of  Deaf  Children,  1897;  Michigan  Day 
Schools  for  the  Deaf,  1908;  Report  of  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  of  Michigan,  1909,  p.  61;  Report  of  De- 
partment of  Public  Instruction  of  Wisconsin,  1910,  p.  60;  Re- 
port of  Board  of  Education  of  Chicago,  1912,  p.  155;  A.  J. 
Winnie,  "  History  and  Handbook  of  Day  Schools  for  the 
Deaf",  Wisconsin,  1912;  Annals,  xx.,  1875,  p.  34;  Association 


DAY  SCHOOLS  197 

Arguments  against  the  Day  School 

The  argument  against  the  day  school  rests 
upon  the  fact  that  the  deaf  form,  educationally, 
a  special  class,  very  small  in  most  communities, 
who  have  to  be  reached  by  unusual  methods.  To 
them  the  large  institution  offers  advantages  not 
likely  to  be  had  outside.  For  this  reason  the  case 
against  the  institution,  however  cogent  and  logi- 
cal it  may  be  in  general,  cannot  well  apply. 

In  the  institution  the  children  may  be  under 
intelligent  supervision  and  direction  their  entire 
time,  and  they  may  be  able  to  get,  outside  school 
hours,  a  part  of  the  education  which  the  hearing 
child  so  naturally  acquires,  for  in  an  institution 
learning  continues  outside  the  classroom  as  well 
as  within.  The  "  picking  up  "  of  knowledge  and 
bits  of  information,  which  the  hearing  child  be- 
gins to  make  use  of  from  the  time  he  first  hears 
human  words,  and  the  importance  and  value  of 
which  the  general  public  cannot  be  expected  to 
appreciate,  is  lost  in  the  greatest  measure  to  the 
deaf  in  the  home.  Here  ready  means  of  com- 
munication are  lacking,  and  the  necessary  care 
and  attention  cannot  be  expected  to  be  given  in 
the  household.  Even  though  deaf  children  can 
and  do  mingle  with  their  hearing  acquaintances, 

Review,  ii.,  1900,  p.  248;  viiL,  1906,  p.  136;  xi.,  1909,  p.  30; 
Volta  Review,  xiii.,  1911,  p.  292;  Independent,  Ixxiv.,  1913, 
p.  1140. 


198  THE  DEAF 

they  cannot  get  so  much  happiness  or  zest  out  of 
their  sports  and  intercourse  as  they  can  with  their 
own  deaf  comrades;  and  while,  no  matter  what 
their  surroundings  are,  the  difficulties  of  most  of 
them  in  mastering  language  will  never  be  over- 
come, still  in  associations  with  similar  deaf  chil- 
dren there  will  be  far  more  stimuli  to  react  on 
their  consciousness,  and  the  tendency  will  be  for 
them  to  become  more  and  more  in  their  mental 
actions  like  the  normal.  In  the  home  there  can  be 
no  great  assurance  of  study  and  supervision ;  and 
the  growing  deaf  child,  not  being  able  to  appre- 
ciate the  forces  that  surround  him  as  the  hearing 
child  does,  may  the  more  easily  fall  under  un- 
wholesome influences.  In  the  institution  there 
can  be  suitable  discipline,  regular  attendance,  en- 
lightened general  oversight,  and  co-ordination  of 
all  that  is  concerned  in  the  child's  proper  develop- 
ment. Furthermore,  although  there  may  be  a 
growing  feeling  against  the  institution  life,  there 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  increasing  social  ques- 
tioning as  to  the  advisability  of  a  child's  remain- 
ing in  a  particular  home  if  his  welfare  is  not 
properly  safeguarded. 

In  many  day  schools  there  are  comparatively 
few  pupils,  and  in  most  of  these  we  cannot  ex- 
pect to  find  the  carefully  graded  classes,  with  a 
place  for  every  pupil  according  to  his  needs, 
bright  or  dull,  quick  to  learn  or  slow.    A  pupil 


DAY  SCHOOLS  199 

in  a  day  school,  if  not  neglected  to  some  extent, 
may  be  required  to  do  work  for  which  he  is  quite 
unfitted,  being  either  beyond  it  or  incapable  of  it. 
The  backward  child  will  here  be  the  worst  suf- 
ferer, for  if  there  are  but  few  classes,  he  can  get 
little  of  the  special  attention  he  needs;  and  his 
progress  cannot  be  the  same  as  when  in  a  class  of 
like  pupils  and  under  an  appropriate  and  patient 
teacher. 

Again,  the  attention  that  is  given  in  an  institu- 
tion with  a  considerable  number  of  pupils  to  the 
learning  of  a  trade — accounting  in  strong  meas- 
ure for  success  in  after  life — means  much  more 
to  a  deaf  child  than  it  could  to  any  other.  In  an 
institution  there  will  usually  be  found  larger 
equipment,  fuller  apparatus  and  more  varied 
lines  than  in  any  but  a  very  large  day  school ;  and 
in  its  trade  department  habits  of  industry  will  be 
formed,  talents  developed,  a  knowledge  of  mech- 
anism and  the  use  of  tools  implanted,  an  ardor 
enkindled  for  the  mastership  of  a  trade,  and  an 
appreciation  of  the  part  to  be  played  in  the  great 
world  of  industrial  activity,  besides  the  incentive 
of  being  in  a  great  workshop  with  other  work- 
ers— all  in  far  greater  measure  and  more  effec- 
tively than  would  be  possible  anywhere  else,  save 
in  a  great  trade  school,  in  which  there  could  not 
be  expected  to  be  taken  the  special  care  and  pro- 


wo  THE  DEAF 

vision  necessitated  by  the  want  of  hearing  of  the 
pupils. 

Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  no  evi- 
dence, as  respects  institutions  for  the  deaf,  to 
show  that  they  have  in  any  way  undermined  the 
character  or  mission  of  the  home,  or  that  their 
results  have  been  other  than  desirable  in  a  well- 
ordered  state.  Hence  we  are  told,  in  a  word, 
that  no  matter  how  strong  and  valid  are  the  theo- 
retical objections  to  an  institution,  yet  so  far  as 
the  practical  issues  are  concerned,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  deaf  for  the  world,  and  in  what  really 
counts  for  their  development  and  progress,  the 
institution,  for  many  at  least,  occupies  a  position 
of  demonstrated  usefulness,  recognition  of  which 
cannot  rightly  be  withheld.^ 

Evening  Day  Schools  for  Adults 

Thus  far  in  this  chapter  we  have  discussed  day 
schools  in  relation  to  children,  that  is,  pupils  in 
the  usual  sense.  But  there  is  another  form  of 
day  schools  to  which  attention  is  to  be  directed. 
Tliis  is  in  the  creation  of  evening  day  schools  for 

*See  Annals,  xxvii.,  1882,  p.  182;  xxix.,  1884,  pp.  165,  312; 
XXX.,  1885,  p.  121 ;  1.,  1905,  p.  70 ;  Ivi.,  1911,  p.  91 ;  Volta  Re- 
view, XV.,  1913,  p.  180 ;  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American 
Instructors,  vii.,  1870,  p.  114;  xiv.,  1895,  pp.  130,  350;  Con- 
ference of  Principals,  vi.,  1888,  p.  202;  viii.,  1904,  p.  70;  Min- 
nesota Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections,  1898,  p.  88; 
Report  of  Iowa  School,  1885,  p.  16;  Pennsylvania  Institution, 
1903,  p.  38;  California  School,  1904,  p.  20. 


DAY  SCHOOLS  201 

the  use  of  adults  only,  the  field  open  to  which  is 
as  yet  apparently  but  little  realized. 

Occasion  for  such  schools  arises  chiefly  in  com- 
munities, especially  large  cities,  where  a  consid- 
erable number  of  adult  deaf  persons  are  within 
reach,  and  where  a  real  need  may  often  be  found. 
The  matter  is  to  be  regarded  in  effect  as  the  ex- 
tension of  the  means  of  education  by  the  state  to 
include  as  large  a  part  of  the  population  as  pos- 
sible— a  movement  which  is  being  so  notably  evi- 
denced in  the  opening  of  evening  schools  of  not 
a  few  kinds  in  cities  to-day.  With  the  deaf  the 
demand  is  of  a  peculiar  nature.  Their  avenues 
for  receiving  instruction  are  materially  restricted, 
and  for  some,  especially  the  congenitally  deaf, 
the  acquisition  of  correct  language  always  re- 
main*s  a  difficult  problem,  while  to  others  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  regular  schools  may  have  been 
limited.  A  large  number  of  the  deaf  will  not 
require  such  special  opportunities,  but  for  a  por- 
tion of  them  the  assistance  may  be  of  quite  sub- 
stantial character.^ 

*0ne  or  two  evening  schools  have  been  started  in  the  past, 
to  be  discontinued  after  a  few  years,  both  under  private  and 
under  public  auspices.  In  the  consideration,  however,  of  any 
general  scheme  for  evening  schools  it  should  be  arranged 
that  the  work  of  the  regular  schools  for  the  deaf  is  not  in- 
fringed upon,  and  that  pupils  in  these  schools  should  not 
have  before  them  the  temptation  of  leaving  prematurely, 
with  the  expectation  of  making  up  later.  Probably  the  safest 
plan  would  be  the  securing  of  a  satisfactory  compulsory  at- 
tendance law  before  evening  schools  are  attempted  upon  a 
broad  scale. 


CHAPTER  XII 

DENOMINATIONAL  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS 
Denominational  Schools 

IN  addition  to  the  state  institutions  and  the  day- 
schools,  there  have  been  established  in  Am- 
erica certain  schools  for  the  deaf  which  are 
strictly  under  private  management,  and,  as  a 
rule,  not  subject  to  the  immediate  control  and  di- 
rection of  the  state.  These  are  of  two  kinds: 
1.  denominational  schools,  maintained  by  some 
religious  body;  and  2.  schools  conducted  as 
purely  private  and  secular  affairs.  Such  schools 
now  number  twenty-one,  ten  denominational  and 
eleven  private,  all  in  1912-1913  having  638 
pupils.  Most  are  of  comparatively  recent  date, 
the  first  having  been  established  in  1873,  and 
nine  since  1901.^ 

The  denominational  schools  are  found  in  Cali- 
fornia, Illinois,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Michigan, 
Missouri,   Ohio,  Pennsylvania,   and  Wisconsin, 

^  *  There  have  been  a  number  of  private  schools  at  various 
times,  perhaps  a  score  or  more,  which  have  been  discontinued — 
besides  those  which  were  the  nucleii  of  the  state  institutions. 
There  are,  moreover,  several  private  schools  for  the  hard  of 
hearing,  where  instruction  and  practice  are  offered  in  lip- 
reading,  and  attended  for  the  most  part  by  adults. 

202 


PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  203 

there  being  two  in  Pennsylvania.  They  are  for 
the  most  part  boarding  institutions,  in  a  few 
cases  being  departments  of  larger  institutions. 
Their  controlling  purpose  is  to  surround  their 
pupils  with  religious  influences,  and  to  provide 
them  with  religious  instruction.  All  but  one  are 
under  Roman  Catholic  auspices,  as  a  usual  thing 
in  the  hands  of  the  Sisters.  The  single  Protes- 
tant school  is  in  the  care  of  the  Lutheran  Church, 
and  is  controlled  by  the  synod,  with  the  direct 
management  vested  in  a  board  of  trustees. 
These  schools  are  supported  by  denominational 
funds,  by  voluntary  contributions,  and  in  a  small 
measure  by  tuition  fees.  In  some  of  the  schools, 
as  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  there  is  state 
aid  to  a  small  extent.  The  fees  paid  by  pupils  are 
never  high,  and  not  many  in  the  schools  pay  the 
full  amount,  though  inability  to  pay  is  never  al- 
lowed to  keep  any  away  who  wish  to  attend.^ 

Private  Schools 
The  eleven  non-denominational  schools  may  be 

*Thus  in  the  Michigan  Evangelical  Lutheran  Institute, 
where  the  minimum  fee  is  $10  a  month,  we  are  advised  that 
only  two  or  three  pay  the  full  amount.  In  St.  John's  In- 
stitute of  Wisconsin,  where  $12  a  month  is  asked,  we  are 
advised  that  the  oflScials  are  "  contented  with  whatever  part 
of  this  sum  the  parents  or  guardians  can  pay  ".  Voluntary 
contributions  likewise  do  not  always  prove  large.  Of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  Institution  of  St.  Louis,  we  are  advised 
that  private  contributions  are  "  too  meagre  to  support  one 
child  ".  The  industry  of  the  Sisters  often  adds  much  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  Catholic  schools. 


204  THE  DEAF 

themselves  divided  into  two  classes:  those  which 
are  really  homes  for  verj^^  young  deaf  children, 
sometimes  under  the  control  of  a  society  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose ;  and  those  which  are  purely 
private  enterprises,  owned  and  directed  by  one 
or  more  individuals.  Of  the  former  there  are 
four  homes  or  kindergartens — the  Sarah  Fuller 
Home  of  Boston,  the  McCowen  Homes  of 
Chicago,  the  Home  School  near  Baltimore,  and 
the  Home  School  of  San  Francisco.^  Their 
main  object  is  to  give  their  pupils  an  early  start 
in  the  use  of  speech  as  well  as  to  provide  a  home, 
and  children  as  young  as  three,  or  even  younger, 
may  be  admitted.  The  management  of  these 
schools  is  usually  in  the  hands  of  trustees.  Sup- 
port is  derived  largely  from  the  fees  of  pupils, 
though  some  schools  are  often  the  recipients  of 
private  donations,  especially  when  children  are 
taken  without  charge;  and  one  or  two  have  aid 
from  public  allowances.^ 

The  private  schools  of  the  second  class  are  al- 
most entirely  dependent  on  tuition  fees,  though 
one  or  two  hkewise  receive  some  state  aid. 
With  two  exceptions,^  they  are  found  in  large 
cities,  New  York  having  two,  and  Philadelphia, 

*  Another  such  home  is  in  Philadelphia,  but  is  now  a  state 
institution. 

=  To  the  Sarah  Fuller  Home  the  state  of  Id^assachusetts 
allows  $250  per  capita  for  some  of  the  children. 

•At  Lead,  South  Dakota,  and  Macon,  Georgia. 


PRIVATE  SCHOOLS  205 

Baltimore    and    Cincinnati    one    each.      These 
schools  are  both  boarding  and  day  schools. 

The  method  employed  in  the  private  schools 
is  nearly  always  the  oral,  and  this  is  the  method 
also  of  some  of  the  denominational  schools.  In 
some  of  the  schools  of  both  classes  manual  train- 
ing and  instruction  in  trades  are  given  to  an 
extent. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  NATIONAL  COLLEGE 

AFTER  our  review  of  the  various  schools 
that  have  been  created  for  the  deaf  in  the 
United  States,  we  come  to  what  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  cuhninative  feature  in  the  provision 
for  their  instruction — an  institution  for  their 
higher  education.  In  this  particular  the  work 
in  America  stands  unique  among  the  nations  of 
the  world.  This  institution  is  Gallaudet  Col- 
lege— named  after  the  founder  of  the  first 
school — which  is  maintained  at  Washington  by 
the  national  government,  and  is  open  to  all  the 
deaf  of  the  coimtry.  We  have  seen  how  the 
national  government  has  rendered  very  distinct 
aid  in  the  work  of  the  education  of  the  deaf;  but 
in  establishing  the  college  it  has  gone  far  beyond 
this,  and  by  this  act  may  be  said  to  have  placed 
the  capstone  upon  the  structure  of  their  educa- 
tion. 

This  college  has  resulted  from  a  school  which 
was  established  in  the  District  of  Columbia  in 
1857,  known  as  the  Kendall  School.  Not  long 
after  Congress  was  asked  to  create  an  institu- 
tion for  the  higher  education  of  the  deaf  as  well, 

206 


THE  NATIONAL  COLLEGE  207 

and  to  include  all  the  country.  No  little  interest 
was  aroused  in  the  matter,  and  zealous  advocates 
appeared  to  present  the  claims  of  the  new  under- 
taking. The  chief  objection  was  the  lack  of  prec- 
edent, while  with  some  members  of  Congress 
the  idea  seemed  strange  of  conferring  college 
degrees  upon  the  deaf.  Opposition,  however,  did 
not  prove  strong,  and  the  measure  was  finally 
enacted  in  1864  by  a  practically  unanimous  vote.^ 

Thus  was  the  college  established,  and  Congress 
continues  regularly  to  provide  for  it,  together 
with  the  Kendall  School,  both  being  known  as  the 
Columbia  Institution  for  the  Deaf.  In  the  college 
there  are  now  provided  one  hundred  full  scholar- 
ships for  students  from  the  several  states  of  the 
Union.^ 

It  is  not  surprising  that  this  action  on  the  part 
of  Congress  should  have  been  held  without  a  prec- 
edent.    In  no  other  instance  has  the  national 

*  See  E.  M.  Gallaudet,  "  Address  in  behalf  of  Columbia  Insti- 
tution," 1858;  Inauguration  of  the  College  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb,  1864;  Report  of  Columbia  Institution,  1866;  1868,  p. 
104;  1889;  1000,  p.  16;  1892;  Proceedings  of  Alumni  Asso- 
ciation of  Gallaudet  College,  1889-1899,  p.  55;  History  of 
Charities  in  District  of  Columbia,  1898,  part  3;  Annals,  xiv., 
1869,  p.  183;  xix.,  1874,  p.  134;  Ivi.,  1911,  p.  184;  Journal  of 
Social  Science,  vi.,  1874,  p.  160;  Scribner's  Magazine,  iii.,  1872, 
p.  727;  Harper's  Magazine,  Ixix.,  1884,  p.  181;  Review  of  Re- 
views, xvi.,  1897,  p.  57.  The  college  was  considerably  aided 
in  its  first  few  years  by  private  contributions.  The  first  presi- 
dent was  Edward  Miner  Gallaudet,  son  of  Thomas  Hopkins 
Gallaudet,  who  served  more  than  fifty  years. 

^The  number  was  at  first  small,  and  has  gradually  been  in- 
creased to  100.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  states 
assist  in  providing  scholarships.  Report  of  Columbia  Institu- 
tion, 1876,  p.  20. 


208  THE  DEAF 

government  attempted  to  make  provision  for  the 
education  of  any  class  or  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  different  states,  beyond  certain  so-called 
wards  of  the  nation,  as  the  Indians,  for  example. 
Though  the  national  government  has  very  per- 
ceptibly encouraged  learning  in  many  ways,^ 
yet  direct  provision  for  the  education  of  the  youth 
of  the  several  commonwealths  has  universally 
been  regarded  as  their  sole  prerogative.  In  thus 
establishing  a  college  for  certain  residents  of  the 
various  states,  the  federal  government  has  done 
something  that  stands  out  by  itself.  Though  the 
reason  lies  in  the  fact  that  no  other  means  for 
the  higher  education  of  the  deaf  seemed  at  hand, 
it  would  appear  that  thereby  the  government  has 
signally  favored  the  deaf,  as  it  indeed  has;  and 
in  taking  under  its  immediate  direction  this 
higher  education  of  the  deaf,  the  national  gov- 
ernment has  won  the  gratitude  of  them  all. 

*This  is  done,  for  instance,  in  the  several  bureaus  estab- 
lished for  investigation  and  the  dissemination  of  knowledge, 
and  in  the  grants  of  land  for  the  benefit  of  agricultural  col- 
leges or  state  universities. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PROVISION  FOR  EDUCATION  BY  STATES 

HAVING  now  considered  the  plan  and  or- 
ganization of  the  several  kinds  of  schools 
for  the  deaf  in  America,  namely,  the  in- 
stitutions, the  day  schools,  the  private  schools  and 
the  national  college,  we  proceed  in  this  chapter  to 
examine  the  work  in  the  several  states  individu- 
ally, and  to  note  to  what  extent  and  in  what  man- 
ner the  education  of  the  deaf  has  been  provided 
for  in  each. 

Alabama,  A  private  school  was  started  near 
Montgomery  in  1854,  but  was  discontinued  after 
one  or  two  years.  The  state  school  was  estab- 
lished at  Talladega  in  1858.^  In  1891  ^  a  school 
was  created  for  the  colored  deaf  and  blind.  The 
schools  are  governed  by  a  board  of  thirteen  mem- 
bers, including  the  governor  and  the  superinten- 
dent of  public  instruction.^ 

Arizona,  Before  the  opening  of  a  local  school 
the  deaf  were  sent  to  other  states  for  instruc- 

*Laws,  1843-4,  p.  43;  185&-60,  p.  344. 

'Laws,  ch.  209. 

•Laws,  1870,  p.  95;  1871,  p.  89;  1879,  p.  34;  1887,  p.  70: 
1889,  p.  29;  1893,  p.  943;  1901,  p.  25;  1904,  p.  45;  1907,  p.  11; 
Code,  1907,  §  1933fle.  The  school  has  received  a  gift  of  $5,000 
for  shops. 


no  THE  DEAF 

tion.^  The  state  school  was  created  in  1912,^ 
and  is  a  part  of  the  state  university.  On  the  ad- 
mission of  Arizona  as  a  state,  100,000  acres  of  the 
public  land  were  granted  for  the  benefit  of  the 
school  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind. 

Arkansas,  A  private  school  was  opened  at 
Clarksville  in  1850,  which  was  moved  to  Little 
Rock  in  1861.^  After  a  suspension,  it  was 
started  anew  in  1867,  and  in  1868  was  taken  over 
by  the  state.*  The  school  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  the  state  board  of  charitable  institutions.^ 

California,  The  state  institution  for  the  deaf 
and  the  blind  was  established  at  Berkeley  in 
1860,^  after  a  society  had  been  formed  for  the 
purpose.  The  school  is  controlled  by  a  board  of 
five  directors,  while  the  state  board  of  charities 
supervises."^  There  are  four  day  schools  in  the 
state:  ^  at  Oakland,  opened  in  1898,  and  sup- 

»Laws,  1891,  ch.  94;  1895,  ch.  10;  Rev.  Stat,  1901,  §§  2267- 
2271. 

»Laws,  1912,  p.  149. 

'To  this  the  legislature  appropriated  a  small  sum.  Another 
private  school  was  started  at  Fort  Smith  in  1860,  but  lasted 
only  one  year. 

*Aets,  July  17,  1868;  April  9,  1869;  Digest,  1874,  p.  204. 
There  were  a  few  gifts  at  first,  and  aid  came  also  from  the 
city.    The  state  granted  two  tracts  of  land,  one  of  100  acres. 

'Laws,  1883,  p.  182;  1891,  ch.  155;  1893,  chs.  31,  126;  1895, 
ch.  151 ;  1905,  ch.  256 ;  1909,  ch.  56 ;  Digest,  1904,  §  4129ff . 

« Laws,  1860,  pp.  211,  277 ;  1861,  p.  81 ;  1863,  p.  583 ;  1865,  p. 
579;  1874,  p.  751;  1875,  p.  686.  In  the  beginning  there  were 
contributions  from  friends  and  proceeds  from  fairs.  The  city 
of  San  Francisco  gave  $7,000  for  a  site,  and  the  county  a  lot. 

'Laws,  1905,  ch.  382;  Pol.  Code,  1909,  §  2236ff.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  funds  given  at  first,  over  $50,000  has  been  donated 
to  the  school,  three-fourths  coming  from  one  source  in  1871. 

"Laws,  1903,  p.  88;  Code,  §  1618.     Separate  classes   (oral) 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  ^11 

ported  by  state  and  county;  at  Los  Angeles  in 
1899,  supported  by  city  and  private  subscrip- 
tions; at  San  Francisco  in  1901,  supported  by 
the  city;  and  at  Sacramento  in  1904,  supported 
by  state  and  city.  There  is  a  private  school  in 
Oakland,  the  St.  Joseph's  Home,  opened  in  1895, 
and  one  in  San  Francisco,  the  Holden  Home 
Oral  School,  opened  in  1913. 

Colorado,  The  state  school  was  opened  at 
Colorado  Springs  in  1874,^  and  is  for  the  deaf 
and  the  blind.  It  is  supported  by  a  one-fifth 
mill  tax  on  the  assessed  property  valuation  of  the 
state.  The  school  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of 
five  trustees,  and  is  connected  with  the  state 
board  of  education.^ 

Connecticut,  The  American  School  was  es- 
tablished at  Hartford  in  1817.^  At  the  time 
the  state  made  an  appropriation  of  $5,000,  and  in 
1828  began  to  allow  a  certain  sum  for  each  state 
pupil,  a  policy  still  continued.  The  school  has 
remained  a  private  corporation,  and  its  board  is 

may  be  established  by  city  boards  or  district  trustees  where 
there  are  five  or  more  pupils,  3  to  21  years  of  age.  There 
were  day  schools  in  Fresno  from  1904  to  1906,  and  in  San 
Diego  from  1912  to  1913;  and  private  schools  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Oakland  from  1898  to  1900. 

*Act  Feb.  13,  1874;  Gen.  Laws,  1877,  p.  653.  The  school 
resulted  largely  from  the  action  of  some  public-spirited  men. 
It  was  established  on  condition  that  5  acres  be  given,  and  it  re- 
ceived 12. 

2  Laws,  1885,  p.  277 ;  1891,  p.  388 ;  1895,  ch.  98 ;  1909,  p.  333 ; 
Ann.  Stat.,  1908,  §  4313if. ;  1912,  §  5009ff.  The  school  has  been 
the  recipient  of  $30,000  or  more,  largely  from  two  men. 

«A  charter  was  granted  In  May,  1816.  See  Laws,  1829,  ch. 
24;  1837,  p.  26;  1843,  p.  2a 


2ia  THE  DEAF 

made  up  of  eight  vice-presidents  and  eight  elected 
directors,  together  with  the  governors  and  secre- 
taries of  state  of  the  New  England  states.  In 
1819  Congress  gave  the  school  23,000  acres  of  the 
public  land,  from  which  almost  $300,000  has  been 
realized.  Gifts  from  private  sources  have  nearly 
equalled  this,  about  half  coming  since  1850.^ 
A  second  school  is  at  Mystic,  known  as  the  Mystic 
Oral  School,  this  having  been  started  in  1870  at 
Ledyard,  where  it  remained  four  years.^  It  is 
imder  a  board  of  ten  corporators.  Both  these 
schools  receive  per  capita  allowances  from  the 
state,  and  are  visited  by  the  state  board  of  char- 
ities.^ 

Delaware,  Deaf  children  are  sent  to  schools 
in  neighboring  states,  the  first  provision  having 
been  made  in  1835.  The  supreme  court  judges 
act  as  trustees  eoc-ojficio,  and  recommend  pupils 
to  the  governor  to  be  placed.* 

District  of  Columbia,    The  Kendall  School,  as 

*At  the  beginning  about  $30,000  was  raised  for  the  school. 

'This  was  known  as  the  Whipple  School  at  first.  In  1898 
it  was  made  a  joint  stock  corporation,  capitalized  at  $8,500. 
It  began  to  receive  state  aid  in  1872.  Act  July  24;  Laws, 
1874,  p.  8. 

"Laws,  1895,  p.  145;  1903,  ch.  207;  1911,  ch.  47;  Rev.  Laws, 
1902,  §  1831.  The  per  capita  allowance  is  $275.  In  1860  a 
private  school  was  opened  at  Hartford,  lasting  one  year. 

^The  counties  paid  the  cost  at  first.  Act  March  4,  1835; 
Laws,  1841,  p.  418;  1843,  p.  418;  Rev.  Stat,  1852,  p.  138; 
Laws,  1860,  ch.  119 ;  1875,  ch.  58 ;  1899,  ch.  245 ;  1907,  ch.  143 ; 
Rev.  Code,  1893,  pp.  388-390.  The  president  of  the  state  hos- 
pital for  the  insane  is  authorized  to  visit  the  schools  to  which 
pupils   are   sent. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  213 

it  is  known,  was  opened  in  1857/  aiiS  was  de- 
signed primarily  for  the  children  of  the  District 
and  of  persons  in  the  army  and  navy  service.  In 
1864  ^  Congress  decided  to  establish  a  collegiate 
department  for  the  deaf  of  all  the  country,  which 
was  first  known  as  the  National  Deaf-Mute  Col- 
lege, but  is  now  Gallaudet  College.  The  Colum- 
bia Institution,  embracing  both  the  college  and 
the  Kendall  School,  is  supported  by  Congress, 
and  is  in  the  form  of  a  corporation,  of  which  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  patron,  and  of 
the  nine  members  of  which  one  is  a  Senator  and 
two  are  members  of  the  House.^ 

Florida,  The  state  school  for  the  deaf  and 
blind  was  opened  at  St.  Augustine  in  1885.*  It 
is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  state  board  of  control 
of  educational  institutions,  which  also  directs  the 
state  university.^  ' 

*Stat.,  1857,  ch.  46;  1860,  ch.  120.  An  unsuccessful  attempt 
had  been  made  a  year  or  two  before  to  start  a  school.  To  the 
new  school  $4,000  of  a  former  orphans'  home  was  turned  over. 

» Stat.,  1864,  ch.  120 ;  1868,  ch.  262. 

»U.  S.  Comp.  Stat,  1901,  pp.  3365-71.  Colored  children  are 
sent  to  Maryland  for  education.  To  the  college  and  school 
$25,000  or  more  was  given  at  the  beginning,  funds  coming 
from  several  cities  in  the  East.  A  few  acres  of  land  w^re 
also  given.  For  two  years  support  largely  came  from"  private 
funds.  In  the  college  there  are  now  100  full  scholarships.  In 
Washington  also  an  experimental  school  was  opened  in  1883, 
continuing  three  years.  Another  private  school  was  started 
in  1856,  lasting  one  year. 

*Laws,  1883,  ch.  3450.  The  school  resulted  from  the  work 
of  the  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Education  of  the 
Deaf  and  the  Blind.  The  city  gave  5  acres  of  land  and 
$1,000,  and  in  1905  gave  10  acres  further. 

=  Laws,  1895,  no.  41;  1903,  ch.  104;  Gen.  Stat.,  1906,  §§  418- 
425.    A  department  for  colored  pupils  was  opened  in  1895. 


214  THE  DEAF 

Georgia,  The  state  began  sending  some  of  its 
deaf  children  to  the  Hartford  school  in  1834.^ 
A  private  school  was  started  at  Cedar  Springs 
in  1842,  which  continued  two  years.  The  state 
school  was  established  at  Cave  Spring  in  1846.^ 
It  is  under  a  board  of  seven  trustees.^  There 
is  a  day  school  in  Atlanta,  supported  by  the 
city,  and  a  private  one  at  Macon,  both  opened  in 
1912. 

Idaho.  Before  the  opening  of  a  state 
school,  deaf  children  were  sent  to  outside  institu- 
tions.* The  school  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind  was 
opened  at  Boise  in  1906,  but  in  1910  was  re- 
moved to  Gooding.  It  is  under  the  state  board 
of  education,  and  subject  to  other  state  inspec- 
tion.^ 

Illinois.  The  state  school  was  opened  at  Jack- 
sonville in  1846,  although  steps  had  been  taken 

>  Laws,  1834,  p.  281 ;  1838,  p.  92 ;  .1842,  p.  24.  An  appropri- 
ation, first  of  $3,500,  tlien  of  $4,500,  was  made. 

^Laws,  1845,  p.  25;  1847,  p.  94;  1852,  p.  80;  1854,  p.  30; 
1856,  p.  159;  1858,  p.  47;  1860,  p.  27.  It  was  first  part  of  an 
academy.  Anotlier  private  school  was  established  at  Lexing- 
ton in  1856,  but  it  too  was  short  lived.  At  the  school  at  Cedar 
Springs  there  were  several  state  pupils. 

^aws,  1876,  p.  30;  1877,  p.  32;  1881,  p.  96;  1892,  p.  83; 
1897,  p.  83;  Code,  1911,  §  1416ff.  In  1882  a  department  was 
created  for  the  colored.  For  a  time  the  deaf  and  the  blind 
were  allowed  free  transportation  on  the  state-owned  railroad. 
Laws,  1853,  p.  97.    The  school  has  received  a  gift  of  $500. 

*  Laws,  1891,  p.  226 ;  1899,  p.  162. 

»Laws,  1907,  p.  240;  1909,  p.  379;  Rev.  Code,  1908,  §  800ff. 
The  school  has  been  given  20  acres  of  land.  In  this  state, 
150,000  acres  of  public  land  are  granted  to  the  charitable  and 
other  institutions,  the  school  for  the  deaf  not  being  mentioned 
by  name. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  S15 

several  years  before  for  its  establishment.^  The 
school  is  directed  by  the  state  board  of  admin- 
istration, while  the  board  of  charities  has  moral 
and  auditing  supervision.^  There  are  in  the 
state  five  day  schools,  four  of  which  are  in 
Chicago,  the  first  having  been  established  in  1896, 
and  the  last  in  1913.  The  other  day  school  is  at 
Rock  Island,  opened  in  1901.  All  these  schools 
are  operated  under  the  state  law,  and  supported 
by  city  funds.^  In  Chicago  there  are  also  two 
private  schools:  the  Ephpheta,  opened  in  1884, 
and  maintained  by  St.  Joseph's  Home  for  the 

*Laws,  1839,  p.  162;  1845,  p.  93;  1847,  p.  47;  1849,  pp.  93, 
163;  1851,  p.  102;  1853,  p.  90;  1857,  p.  84;  1875,  p.  104.  It 
seems  that  at  first  one-fourth  of  the  interest  of  the  school 
fund  was  allowed  to  the  institution,  but  in  1851  a  tax  of  one- 
sixth  mill  was  laid  for  its  benefit,  which  lasted  four  years. 

2  Laws,  1897,  ch.  23;  1909,  p.  102;  Rev.  Stat,  1909,  ch.  23. 
The  school  has  been  given  five  acres  of  land  by  the  city,  and 
a  private  gift  of  $2,000. 

"Laws,  1897,  p.  290;  1905,  p.  373;  1911,  p.  502;  Rev.  Stat, 
1909,  p.  2013.  The  superintendent  of  public  Instruction  may 
grant  permission  for  teaching  one  or  more  classes  of  not  less 
than  three  pupils,  average  attendance,  in  the  public  schools. 
The  amount  authorized  from  the  state  is  not  to  exceed  $110 
for  each  pupil.  The  first  Chicago  school  was  a  private  one, 
established  in  1870,  and  lasting  one  year.  In  1874  another 
school  was  opened,  which  was  taken  over  by  the  city  in  1875. 
The  state  allowed  it  $15,000,  and  appropriated  $5,000  a  year 
till  1887,  instead  of  creating  an  institution  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state.  See  Laws,  1879,  p.  20;  Report  of  Illinois 
Institution,  1874,  p.  76 ;  P.  A.  Emery,  "  Brief  Historical  Sketch 
of  Chicago  Deaf -Mute  Schools  ",  1886.  There  has  been  con- 
nection between  the  Chicago  schools  and  the  McCowen  Homes. 
Other  day  schools  in  Illinois  have  been:  La  Salle,  1898-1899 
Streator  1898-1905;  Derinda,  1899-1900;  Rockford,  1901-1905 
Moline,  1901-1908;  Galena,  1902-1903;  Dundee,  1903-1904 
Aurora,  1903-1912;  and  Elgin,  1905-1906.  In  1913  there  were 
eleven  day  schools  in  Chicago,  which  were  consolidated  into 
four.  In  this  city  a  vacation  school  is  also  maintained  for  the 
deaf. 


gl6  THE  DEAF 

Friendless/  and  the  McCowen  Homes  for  Deaf 
Children,  opened  in  1883.^ 

Indiana,  Prior  to  the  opening  of  the  state 
school,  some  children  were  sent  to  Kentucky  and 
Ohio  for  education.  In  1841  a  private  school  was 
started  in  Parke  County,  which  lasted  one  year.* 
In  1843  another  private  school  was  begun  in  In- 
dianapolis, which  was  adopted  by  the  state  in 
1844.*  The  school  is  now  governed  by  a  board 
of  four  trustees,  and  is  under  the  state  board  of 
education,  with  certain  connection  also  with  the 
board  of  charities.** 

Iowa.  Before  the  opening  of  the  state  school 
some  pupils  were  sent  to  the  school  in  Illinois. 
In  1853  a  private  school  was  started  at  Iowa 
City,  which  in  1855  was  taken  over  by  the  state,® 

*This  school  has  received  among  other  gifts  a  bequest  of 
$43,000,  a  donation  of  $15,000  from  a  ladies'  society,  and  of 
$40,000  from  friends. 

"This  school  is  under  a  board  of  twelve  trustees.  It  has 
received  some  private  gifts,  in  addition  to  an  endowment 
fund  from  its  first  trustees.  There  was  in  Chicago  a  private 
school  for  adults  from  1905  to  1913. 

•This  school  was  taught  by  a  deaf  man  largely  at  his  own 
expense.  In  1842  the  state  granted  it  $200.  A  census  of  the 
deaf  was  authorized  in  1839.    Laws,  p.  58. 

*  Laws,  1843,  ch.  70 ;  1844,  ch.  16 ;  1845,  ch.  69 ;  1848,  ch.  59 ; 
1865,  p.  124;  Rev.  Stat.,  1852,  p.  243.  For  the  benefit  of  the 
school  a  tax  levy  was  laid,  first  of  two  mills,  then  of  five,  and 
later  of  fifteen,  which  continued  till  1851,  netting  the  school 
some  $50,000. 

•Laws,  1891,  ch.  186;  1895,  p.  157;  1899,  ch.  118;  1907,  ch. 
98;  1909,  ch.  146;  Ann.  Stat.,  1908,  p.  lOlfif.  There  was  a 
private  school  at  Evansville  from  1886  to  1902. 

•Code,  1851,  ch.  73;  Laws  1853,  ch.  26;  1855,  chs.  56.  87. 
An  appropriation  was  made  to  the  school  while  still  a  private 
one. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  217 

in  1866  being  removed  to  Council  Bluffs.^  The 
school  is  under  the  state  board  of  control.^ 

Kansas.  A  private  school  was  started  in  1861 
at  Baldwin  City.  After  being  removed  to 
Topeka  in  1864  and  back  again  to  Baldwin  City 
in  1865,  it  was  taken  over  by  the  state  in  1866,^ 
and  permanently  located  at  Olathe.  The  state 
board  of  administration  for  educational  institu- 
tions has  the  direction  of  the  school.^ 

Kentucky,  The  state  school  was  established 
at  Danville  in  1823.^  In  1826  it  received  from 
Congress  a  township  of  land  in  Florida.^  The 
school  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  twelve  com- 
missioners, and  is  related  to  the  state  department 
of  education."^ 

*Laws,  ch.  136. 

^'Code,  1897,  p.  926ff . ;  Laws,  1902,  ch.  122;  1909,  ch.  175; 
1913,  p.  255 ;  Code,  1907,  p.  622ff.  There  was  a  private  school 
at  Dubuque  from  1888  to  1899,  which  received  contributions, 
proceeds  of  fairs,  etc.,  of  several  thousand  dollars.  It  was 
hoped  that  this  would  be  made  a  state  school  for  the  children 
of  Eastern  Iowa. 

'Laws,  1862,  p.  95;  1864,  ch.  50;  1865,  ch.  36;  1866,  ch.  48; 
1871,  ch.  34;  1873,  ch.  135;  1877,  ch.  130.  To  the  private 
school  the  state  granted  some  aid.  The  school  was  located  at 
Olathe  on  condition  that  20  acres  of  land  be  given  for  a  site, 
and  150  for  its  benefit. 

*Laws,  1901,  ch.  353;  1905,  chs.  384,  475;  Gen.  Stat,  1909, 
§  8437ff. 

'Laws,  1822,  p.  179;  1824,  p.  452;  1836,  p.  379.  A  private 
school  was  opened  at  Hopkinsville  in  1844,  which  lasted  ten 
years.  Pupils  were  received  from  several  states.  Annals,  xliv., 
1899,  p.  359. 

« This  grant  seems  not  to  have  been  wisely  administered,  but 
over  $57,000  was  realized  from  it. 

'Laws,  1850,  p.  23;  1851,  ch.  26;  1852,  p.  357;  1854,  p.  15; 
1870,  p.  2;  1882,  p.  16;  1912,  ch.  71;  Stat.,  1909,  §  270fe.  A 
department  for  the  colored  was  created  in  1884.  Laws,  p.  175. 
There  have  been  some  private  gifts  to  the  school,  amounting  to 
about  seven  thousand  dollars. 


218  THE  DEAF 

Louisiana.  In  1837  the  state  began  to  send 
some  of  its  children  to  schools  in  other  states, 
many  being  sent  to  Kentucky.^  The  state 
school  was  established  at  Baton  Rouge  in  1852.^ 
It  is  governed  by  a  board  of  trustees,  including 
the  governor  and  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  and  is  visited  by  the  state  board  of 
charities.^  In  New  Orleans  there  is  a  day 
school,  opened  in  1911,  and  supported  by  the 
city.*  At  Chinchuba  there  is  a  private  school, 
the  Chinchuba  Deaf-Mute  Institute,  under  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  opened  in  1890. 

Maine,  In  1825  the  state  began  to  send  its 
children  to  the  American  School,  and  later  to  the 
schools  in  Massachusetts  as  well.^  In  1876  a  pri- 
vate school  was  started  in  Portland  with  aid  from 
the  city,  and  the  following  year  from  the  state 
also.^  In  1897  the  state  assumed  charge,  the 
school  being  placed  under  a  board  of  five  trus- 
tees.'^  Inspection  is  made  by  the  state  board  of 
charities. 

*  See  Laws,  1838,  p.  9 ;  Digest,  1842,  ch.  39 ;  Report  of  Ken- 
tucky School,  1848,  p.  8. 

^  Laws,  1852,  p.  220 ;  1866,  p.  124 ;  1871,  p.  203 ;  1888,  p.  51. 

'Laws,  1898,  ch.  166;  1908,  ch.  239;  Rev.  Stat.,  1904,  pp. 
579-582. 

^A  day  school  was  also  maintained  here  from  1886  to  1891. 

•^Laws,  1823,  p.  233;  1824,  p.  353;  1829,  p.  25;  1840,  ch.  70; 
1852,  p.  359;  1879,  p.  122. 

•In  1877  the  state  made  appropriations  for  pupils  outside 
of  Portland,  and  in  1881  for  the  entire  state. 

^Laws,  1885,  ch.  220;  1893,  ch.  203;  1897,  ch.  446;  1899,  ch. 
2;  Rev.  Stat.,  1903,  p.  226.  The  property  was  conveyed  to  the 
state. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  219 

Maryland,  In  1827  provision  was  made  for 
pupils  in  the  Pennsylvania  Institution,  and  in 
1860  in  the  District  of  Columbia.^  In  1868^ 
the  Maryland  school  was  established  at  Freder- 
ick. It  is  under  a  private  society,  composed  of 
twenty-seven  visitors,  but  is  supported  and  con- 
trolled by  the  state.  In  1872  a  department  for 
the  colored  was  opened  in  connection  with  the  in- 
stitution for  the  blind,  now  located  at  Overlea.^ 
Both  of  these  schools  are  inspected  by  the  state 
board  of  charities.^  There  are  two  private 
schools  in  Baltimore,  the  St.  Francis  Xavier 
under  the  Mission  Helpers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
opened  in  1897,  and  a  department  in  the  Knapp 
School,  opened  in  1877;  and  at  Kensington  a 
Home  School,  opened  in  1908.  These  schools 
are  aided  by  the  state.^ 

Massachusetts,  In  1819,  just  after  the  Amer- 
ican School  had  been  established,  Massachusetts 

*  Laws,  1826,  ch.  255 ;  1827,  ch.  140 ;  1833,  ch.  125 ;  1834,  ch. 
169;  1839,  ch.  28;  1849,  ch.  209;  1854,  ch.  224;  1860,  ch.  129; 
1865,  ch.  68. 

^'Laws,  1867,  ch.  247;  1868,  chs.  205,  409;  1870,  p.  922;  1874, 
ch.  42.  The  society  was  to  have  power  of  perpetual  succession, 
and  the  state  was  to  appropriate  $5,000  a  year  till  the  endow- 
ment fund  should  reach  $200,000.  The  school  was  opened  in 
certain  barracks  belonging  to  the  state. 

*  Laws,  1874,  p.  483.  This  school  was  formed  under  a  board 
composed  of  three  visitors  each  from  the  school  for  the  deaf 
and  that  for  the  blind. 

*Laws,  1886,  ch.  78;  1892,  ch.  272;  1904,  ch.  299;  1906,  ch. 
236;  Gen.  Laws,  1904,  1.,  p.  979.  The  school  has  received  in 
gifts  over  six  thousand  dollars  since  1880.  Grants  have  also 
been  made  to  it  by  the  city  of  Baltimore. 

•^The  first  receives  $1,000  a  year,  and  the  second  $1,200. 


220  THE  DEAF 

began  sending  its  deaf  children  to  it,  which  policy 
was  continued  till  the  state  had  schools  of  its 
own/  The  first  of  these  was  the  Clarke  School 
at  Northampton,  which  was  established  in  1867.^ 
This  had  been  started  at  Chelmesford  the  year 
before,  but  removed  to  Northampton  when  a  citi- 
zen whose  name  it  bears  offered  it  $50,000 — sub- 
sequently adding  to  this  till  his  total  gifts  reached 
$300,000.*  In  1868  the  legislature  provided  that 
state  pupils  might  be  sent  to  it.  The  school  is 
under  a  board  of  twelve  corporators.  The  New 
England  Industrial  School  was  opened  at 
Beverly  in  1879,^*  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
language  and  industrial  training.  It  is  under 
a  board  of  thirteen  incorporators.  The  Boston 
School  at  Randolph  was  established  in  1899,  and 
is  under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.^  In  Boston 
there  is  a  day  school,  known  as  the  Horace  Mann 
School,  opened  in  1869,  and  directed  by  the 
city.^      The    Sarah   Fuller   Home   is   at   West 

*  r^ws,  1817,  ch.  24 ;  1818,  p.  496 ;  1825,  ch.  83 ;  1828,  ch.  97 ; 
1841,  ch.  45 ;  1843,  ch.  79 ;  1855,  ch.  84. 

'  Laws,  1867,  chs.  311,  334 ;  1868,  ch.  200 ;  1869,  ch.  333. 

*  Some  other  gifts  have  also  been  received,  including  a 
gymnasium  and  two  donations  of  $50,000  each. 

*  See  Laws,  1886,  ch.  42 ;  1899,  p.  554.  This  school  resulted 
from  a  gift  of  $1,500  to  the  New  England  Gallaudet  Associ- 
ation, a  home  for  adults  first  being  contemplated.  See  Report, 
1881,  p.  7 ;  Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1880,  p.  clxviil  The  school  has  received  a  legacy  of  $50,000, 
and  there  are  annual  donations  of  two  or  three  thousand  dol- 
lars. 

^This  school  came  within  the  law  as  to  state  pupils.     Some 
gifts  have  no  doubt  been  received  by  it. 
« Lav/s,  1869,  p.  637 ;  1885,  ch.  201 ;  1905,  ch.  468.    The  state 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  m 

Medford,  and  was  opened  in  1888.^  All  these 
schools  receive  state  appropriations,  and  are  su- 
pervised by  the  state  department  of  education.^ 
Michigan.  Action  was  taken  in  1848  towards 
the  establishment  of  an  institution,  but  it  was  not 
till  1854  that  the  school  was  opened,  Flint  being 
chosen  as  the  site.^  In  1850  the  state  granted 
the  school  fifteen  sections  of  its  salt  spring  lands, 
later  increasing  the  number  to  twenty-five,  which 
amounted  in  all  to  16,000  acres.*  The  school  is 
under  a  board  of  three  trustees,  and  is  visited  by 
the  state  board  of  charities  and  corrections.^ 
There  are  fourteen  day  schools  in  the  state, 
operating   under   the   state   law:^      Bay    City, 

granted  the  land  for  a  building.     This  school  has  received 
gifts  of  several  thousand  dollars. 

^The  home  is  under  an  executive  committee  of  twenty-five, 
with  powers  of  trustees.  Subscriptions  and  donations  average 
one  or  two  thousand  dollars  a  year,  and  in  all  have  amounted 
to  some  $50,000. 

=^Laws,  1871,  ch.  300;  1875,  ch.  118;  1886,  ch.  241;  1887, 
ch.  179 ;  1888,  ch.  239 ;  1889,  ch.  226 ;  1906,  ch.  383 ;  Rev.  Stat., 
1902,  p.  412.  Appointments  are  made  by  the  governor  with 
the  approval  of  the  secretary  of  the  board  of  education.  The 
state  appropriations  are  $150  for  the  day  school,  and  from 
$250  to  $350  for  the  other  schools. 

"Laws,  1848,  pp.  246,  463;  1849,  pp.  137,  327;  1850,  p.  334; 
1853,  no.  80;  1857,  p.  185. 

*The  school  also  received  20  acres  of  land  and  $3,000  from 
the  city. 

''Laws,  1867,  p.  128;  1873,  chs.  109,  111;  1881,  pp.  5,  274; 
1891,  ch.  169;  1893,  ch.  116;  1907,  chs.  48,  275;  Comp.  Laws 
1897,  §§  1990-2008. 

« Laws,  1899,  ch.  176 ;  1905,  ch.  224.  The  law  reads :  "  Upon 
the  application  of  a  district  board  or  of  a  board  of  education 
of  a  city  in  this  state  to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, he  shall  grant  permission  to  such  board  to  establish,  and 
such  board  shall  be  empowered  to  establish  and  maintain, 
within  the  limits  of  it^  jurisdiction,  one  or  more  day  schools, 


222  THE  DEAF 

opened  in  1901;  Calumet,  1902;  Detroit,  1894; 
Grand  Rapids,  1898;  Houghton,  1908;  Iron 
Mountain,  1906;  Ironwood,  1903;  Jackson, 
1912;  Kalamazoo,  1904;  Manistee,  1904;  Mar- 
quette, 1907;  Saginaw,  1901;  Saulte  Ste.  Marie, 
1906;  and  Traverse  City,  1904.  There  is  a 
private  school  at  North  Detroit,  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Deaf-Mute  Institute,  opened  in 
1873.' 

Minnesota.  The  state  school  was  opened  at 
Faribault  in  1863,  though  it  had  been  planned 
in  1858.^  The  school  is  governed  by  a  board  of 
seven  directors,  including  the  governor  and  the 
superintendent  of  pubhc  instruction,  while  the 
state  board  of  control  has  the  financial  admin- 
istration.^    There  is  a  day  school  in  St.  Paul, 

having  an  average  attendance  of  not  less  than  three  pupils, 
for  the  instruction  of  deaf  persons  over  the  age  of  three  ",  etc. 
The  amount  allowed  for  each  pupil  is  $150.  There  have  been 
other  day  schools  in  this  state:  Menominee,  1900-1907;  Ish- 
peming,  1904-1909;  Flint,  1911-1912;  and  L'Anse,  1912-1913. 
The  school  at  Flint  was  an  evening  school  for  adults. 

^Ten  congregations  may  be  incorporated  to  organize  such 
an  institution,  and  hold  property  to  the  value  of  $50,000.  Laws, 
1901,  ch,  28.  This  school  was  for  a  time  part  of  an  orphan 
asylum.  It  has  been  given  20  acres  of  land.  The  control  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  board  of  nine  trustees.  A  private  school  was 
maintained  at  Marquette  from  1879  to  1883. 

2  Laws,  1858,  p.  175;  1863,  ch.  9;  186i,  ch.  71;  1868,  ch.  17; 
1874,  ch.  18.  In  1863  also  provision  was  made  for  pupils  in 
outside  schools.  The  school  was  established  on  condition  that 
the  city  give  it  40  acres  of  land,  and  it  received  25  acres  in 
addition. 

'Laws,  1887,  ch.  205;  Laws,  1902,  ch.  83;  1907,  ch.  407; 
1909,  ch.  396;  Rev.  Laws,  1905,  §§  1931-1937.  There  is  also 
a  board  of  visitors  of  state  institutions.  Departments  for  the 
blind  and  for  the  feeble-minded  were  created  here,  but  later 
separated. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  223 

opened  in  1913,  and  supported  by  the  city  and 
with  private  aid.^ 

Mississippi,  The  state  school  was  opened  at 
Jackson  in  1854.^  It  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board 
of  six  trustees,  including  the  governor.^ 

Missouri,  A  school  under  Catholic  auspices 
was  estabhshed  in  St.  Louis  in  1837,  to  which 
the  state  sent  some  of  its  children,  while  others 
were  sent  to  schools  in  other  states.^  The  state 
school  was  opened  at  Fulton  in  1851.^  It  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  five  managers,  and  is 
visited  by  the  state  board  of  charities.*^  There 
is  a  day  school  in  St.  Louis,  founded  in  1878, 
and  managed  as  part  of  the  public  school  system. 
In  the  same  city  is  a  private  school,  under  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  opened  in  1885  and  off- 
spring of  the  school  of  1837.     It  is  known  as 


*  There  was  another  day  school  here  from  1895  to 
and  a  private  school  from  1886  to  1893.  A  department  for  the 
deaf  was  established  at  St.  Olaf  College  at  Northfield  in  1907, 
but  discontinued  in  1912.  See  Bulletin,  May,  1909;  Viking, 
1909,  p.  56. 

'  Act,  March  1 ;  Laws,  1855,  p.  114 ;  1856-7,  ch.  25 ;  1857,  p. 
40;  1858,  p.  230;  Stat.  L.,  1857,  p.  169.  The  governor  had 
recommended  a  school  in  1841. 

'Ann.  Code,  1906,  ch.  68.  The  school  has  received  a  gift  of 
$5,000.     A  department  for  the  colored  was  opened  in  1882. 

*  In  1839  $2,000  was  appropriated  for  the  deaf  at  St.  Louis, 
and  $210  for  a  pupil  in  the  Kentucky  school.  Laws,  pp.  27, 
213.  Some  pupils  were  sent  to  Ohio  and  Illinois  also.  See 
also  Laws,  1847,  p.  48. 

'  Laws,  1851,  p.  211 ;  1872,  p.  155 ;  1874,  p.  171 ;  1877,  p.  264. 
Forty  acres  of  land  provided  for  the  insane  asylum  were  given 
to  the  school. 

*  Laws,  1895,  p.  188 ;  Rev.  Stat.,  1909,  §  1484flf.  A  department 
for  the  colored  was  opened  in  1889. 


^24  THE  DEAF 

the  Immaculate  Conception  Institute,  and  is  part 
of  a  convent  and  orphans'  home.^ 

Montana,  Before  the  establishment  of  a 
school,  deaf  children  were  sent  to  schools  in  other 
states.^  The  state  institution  for  the  deaf  and 
blind  was  opened  at  Boulder  in  1893,^  50,000 
acres  of  the  public  land  having  been  given  by 
Congress  for  its  benefit.  It  is  under  a  board  of 
nine  trustees,  appointed  by  the  state  board  of 
education,  with  a  local  executive  board  of  three, 
there  being  other  state  inspection  also.^ 

Nebraska,  Before  the  establishment  of  a 
school,  deaf  children  were  sent  to  lowa.^  In 
1869  the  state  school  was  opened  at  Omaha.^  It 
is  governed  by  the  state  board  of  control  of 
state  institutions."^ 

Nevada,  Deaf  children  have  been  sent  since 
1869  to  California  or  Utah  for  education,  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  contracting 
for  them.^ 

*A  branch  of  this  school  was  maintained  at  Hannibal  from 
1882  to  1887,  and  another  branch  in  St.  Louis  from  1893  to 
1900.  In  St.  Louis  there  was  also  a  private  school  from  1885 
to  1891,  and  from  1890  to  1892. 

'Comp.  Stat,  1887,  p.  917. 

•Laws,  1893,  p.  181;  Code,  1895,  §  2330ff. 

*Laws,  1903,  chs.  9,  10;  Rev.  Code,  1907,  §  1115ff.  A 
department  for  the  feeble-minded  has  been  connected  with 
this  school. 

*Rev.  Stat.,  1866,  p.  374. 

"Laws,  1867,  p.  59;  1871,  pp.  94,  231;  1875,  p.  146.  Ten 
acres  of  land  were  given  by  the  city  of  Omaha. 

^Laws,  1897,  ch.  26;  1901,  ch.  70;  1905,  ch.  147;  1909,  p. 
230;  1911,  p.  209;  1913,  p.  537;  Ann.  Stat,  1911,  §  lO.OOOfif. 
A  private  school  was  opened  in  Omaha  in  1897,  lasting  one  year. 

»Laws,  1869,  ch.  56;  1905,  p.  253;  1907,  p.  371;  Rev.  Laws, 
1912,  §  1702fe. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  225 

New  Hampshire,  In  1821  the  state  began 
sending  its  deaf  children  to  the  school  at  Hart- 
ford.^ They  are  now  sent  to  the  schools  in 
the  several  New  England  states,  as  the  governor 
and  council  may  direct,  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  board  of  control.^ 

New  Jersey,  In  1821  the  state  began  to  pro- 
vide for  the  education  of  its  deaf  children  in  the 
schools  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.^  In 
1883  the  state  school  was  established  at  Tren- 
ton.* It  is  related  to  the  state  department  of 
education.^  There  are  two  day  schools  in  the 
state,  at  Newark  and  Jersey  City,  both  opened 
in  1910,  and  operating  under  the  state  law.^ 

New  Mexico,    A  private  school  was  opened  at 

*In  1819  a  committee  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
circumstances  of  the  deaf  and  the  blind.  Laws,  p.  245.  See 
also  Laws,  1821,  p.  508 ;  1822,  p.  92 ;  1836.  ch.  256. 

^'Laws,  1875,  p.  484;  1879,  ch.  58;  1899,  ch.  99;  1905,  ch. 
106;  Pub.  Stat,  1901,  ch.  86. 

•The  first  appropriation  was  of  $2,000.  Laws,  1821,  p.  3; 
1830,  pp.  113,  314;  1838,  p.  82;  1853,  p.  140;  1860,  p.  240; 
1873,  p.  45.  A  few  pupils  were  sent  to  the  school  at  Mystic, 
Connecticut,  shortly  before  the  state  school  was  created. 

*Laws,  1882,  p.  259;  1884,  p.  160;  1885,  p.  177.  The  prop- 
erty of  an  old  school  for  the  children  of  soldiers  was  first 
made  use  of.  In  1825  a  school  was  incorporated  in  this  state, 
and  $160  was  allowed  by  the  legislature  for  each  pupil.  Laws, 
pp.  Ill,  124.  Some  private  donations  seem  to  have  been  made, 
but  the  school  never  came  into  being.  In  1875  a  tract  of 
land  was  offered  for  a  school.  Report  of  Commission  on 
Proposals  for  Sites  and  Plans  for  Buildings  for  the  Deaf, 
Blind  and  the  Feeble-minded,  1874.  In  1860  a  private  school 
was  opened  in  Trenton,  which  continued  six  years. 

»Laws,  1891,  ch.  97;  1892,  ch.  203;  1893,  p.  327;  1895,  ch. 
411 ;  1910,  p.  334 ;  Comp.  Stat,  1910,  p.  1896fC. 

"Day  schools  are  authorized  where  there  are  ten  or  more 
pupils  in  a  city.    Laws,  1910,  p.  513. 


226  THE  DEAF 

Santa  Fe  in  1885,  which  in  1887  was  taken  over 
by  the  territory.^  It  was  given  50,000  acres  of 
the  public  land,  and  on  the  admission  of  New 
Mexico  as  a  state,  this  was  increased  to  100,000. 
The  school  is  directed  by  a  board  of  six  trustees.^ 
New  York,  There  are  in  this  state  eight  in- 
stitutions, three  day  schools,  and  two  private 
schools.  The  institutions  are  all  private  corpora- 
tions receiving  state  aid.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  New  York  Institution  for  the  Instruction  of 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  which  was  opened  in  1818 
in  New  York  City.^  In  1819  the  state  began  to 
make  appropriations.  The  school  is  governed 
by  a  board  of  twenty-one  trustees.*     The  next 

*Laws,  1887,  ch.  31.  There  were  a  few  contributions  at 
first 

*Laws,  1899,  ch.  42;  1903,  ch.  2;  Comp.  Laws,  1897,  p.  904. 

•  Laws,  1817,  ch.  264 ;  1819,  chs.  206,  238 ;  1822,  p.  247 ;  1827, 
p.  329 ;  1832,  ch.  223 ;  1836,  chs.  228,  511 ;  1841,  p.  133 ;  1849,  p. 
589.  See  also  Cammann  and  Camp,  "  Charities  of  New  York  ", 
1868,  p.  151 ;  J.  F.  Richmond,  "  New  York  and  its  Institutions  ", 
1871,  p.  287.  The  city  granted  $400  annually  for  several  years, 
allowed  the  use  of  land  at  a  nominal  rental  for  twenty-one 
years,  and  later  gave  an  acre  of  land,  besides  furnishing  quar- 
ters in  a  public  building  for  eleven  years.  By  the  state  the  In- 
stitution was,  together  with  a  certain  free  school  society, 
allowed  for  fourteen  years  one-half  of  the  proceeds  from 
fines  or  licenses  on  lotteries,  which  from  1819  to  1827  netted 
over  $20,000.  In  1827  the  legislature  granted  $10,000  on  con- 
dition that  an  equal  sum  be  raised  from  private  funds,  and 
that  inspection  be  allowed  to  the  state.  In  1825  a  school  was 
established  by  the  state  at  Canajoharie,  but  in  1836  its  prop- 
erty was  ordered  sold,  and  its  pupils  brought  to  the  New 
York  Institution.     Laws,  1823,  p.  224;  1836,  p.  779. 

*  From  1879  to  1882  a  primary  department  was  maintained 
at  Tarrytown.  In  3857  it  was  proposed  that  the  buildings 
and  other  property  be  conveyed  to  the  state  as  trustee,  but 
to  be  used  always  for  the  instruction  of  the  deaf,  on  condi- 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  227 

school  was  Le  Couteulx  St.  Mary's  Institu- 
tion for  the  Improved  Instruction  of  Deaf- 
Mutes,  organized  in  Buffalo  in  1853  by  a 
benevolent  society,  and  opened  in  1862.  In  1872 
it  came  within  the  state  law  as  to  public  aid.^ 
It  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  seven  managers. 
In  New  York  City  in  1867  the  New  York  In- 
stitution for  the  Improved  Instruction  of  Deaf- 
Mutes  was  established,  which  had  resulted  from  a 
private  class.  It  is  in  the  hands  of  an  associa- 
tion formed  for  the  purpose,  the  management 
being  vested  in  a  board  of  twenty-one  trustees.^ 
In  1869  St.  Joseph's  Institution  was  opened 
in  New  York  City,  a  branch  being  created  in 

tion  that  the  state  pay  all  the  debts  and  finish  the  buildings 
then  in  course  of  construction ;  but  this  plan  was  not  adopted. 
Report,  1858,  p.  9;  Assembly  Documents  of  State  of  New 
York,  1857,  no.  190.  The  total  amount  of  private  gifts  to 
this  school  seems  to  be  about  $125,000,  nearly  all  coming  in 
the  first  few  decades  of  its  existence.  See  Report,  1879,  p. 
101.  The  institution  holds  38  names  in  "  perpetual  and  grate- 
ful remembrance  ".  The  funds  are  given  in  1912  as  $1,030,059, 
which  are  largely  due  to  favorable  investments. 

^Laws,  1871,  ch.  548;  1872,  ch.  670.  Funds  were  received 
in  the  beginning  from  the  proceeds  of  bazaars,  etc.,  and  an 
acre  of  land  and  a  building  were  given  to  it.  Contributions 
are  still  received  from  time  to  time. 

2  Laws,  1867,  ch.  721;  1870,  ch.  180.  Within  a  short  time 
after  opening,  $70,000  was  donated  for  the  school.  See  Ad- 
dresses upon  Laying  of  Corner  Stone,  1880.  Other  consider- 
able gifts  have  come  to  it,  one  in  1909  being  of  $30,000,  while 
there  are  annual  contributions  of  several  thousand  dollars. 
Land  for  a  building  was  granted  by  the  city  for  ninety-nine 
years  at  an  annual  rental  of  one  dollar.  This  school  has  been 
under  Hebrew  auspices,  but  there  has  been  discussion  of  its 
being  turned  over  to  the  city  on  the  payment  of  its  debts,  to 
be  kept  as  a  public  non-sectarian  school.  See  Reports,  1909, 
1910. 


THE  DEAF 

Brooklyn  in  1874/  It  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary,  and 
directed  by  a  board  of  seven  managers.  The 
Central  New  York  Institution  was  opened  at 
Rome  in  1875,  and  is  governed  by  a  board  of 
fifteen  trustees.^  The  Western  New  York  In- 
stitution was  established  at  Rochester  in  1876, 
and  has  twenty-one  trustees.^  The  Northern 
New  York  Institution  was  established  at  Malone 
in  1884,  and  is  under  a  board  of  fifteen  trustees.* 
The  Albany  Home  School  for  the  Oral  Instruc- 
tion of  the  Deaf  was  opened  in  1889  as  a  private 
affair,  and  came  under  the  state  law  in  1892.^ 
It  has  a  board  of  eight  trustees.  The  New  York 
law  admitting  children  into  these  several  institu- 
tions is  peculiar,  pupils  under  twelve  years  of 
age  being  sent  as  charges  of  the  counties,  and 
those  over  that  age  as  state  pupils,  who  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  state  commissioner  of  education. 
The  schools  are  visited  both  by  the  departments 
of  education  and  of  charities.^     The  three  day 

*Laws,  1877,  ch.  378.  To  this  school  about  $150,000  seems 
to  have  been  donated,  to  gather  from  the  reports.  Several 
thousand  dollars  are  received  annually. 

^Laws,  1876,  ch.  13;  1880,  ch.  335;  1890,  ch.  469.  Six 
acres  of  land  and  several  thousand  dollars  were  given  at  the 
beginning. 

"Laws,  1876,  ch.  331.     A  few  gifts  were  received  at  first. 

*  Laws,  1884,  ch.  275 ;  1890,  ch.  280.  In  the  Census  Report  of 
Benevolent  Institutions  of  1904  this  school  is  given  as  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  state. 

"Laws,  1892,  ch.  36. 

*In  1863  it  was  enacted  that  county  overseers  or  super- 
visors  should   place   a   deaf  child   when  likely   to   become   a 


PROVISION  BY  STATES 

schools  are  in  New  York  City,  one  in  Manhattan, 
opened  in  1908,  one  in  Brooklyn,  opened  in  1910, 
and  one  in  Queens,  opened  in  1911,  the  last  two 
being  annexes  of  the  first.  The  two  private 
schools  are  also  in  this  city:  the  Wright  Oral, 
opened  in  1894,  and  the  Reno  Margulies,  opened 
in  1901.' 

North  Carolina,  A  school  was  planned  m  this 
state  in  1828,  but  it  did  not  come  into  being  till 
1845,  when  the  state  institution  was  established 
at  Raleigh,^  which  was  for  both  the  deaf  and 

public  charge  in  an  institution;  or  a  parent  or  friend  of  such 
a  child  from  five  to  twelve  years  of  age  might  prove  that  the 
health,  morals,  or  comfort  of  such  child  was  endangered  by  the 
want  of  education  or  of  proper  care,  and  might  apply  to  the 
county  officer  for  an  order  to  admit  the  child  to  an  institu- 
tion. Laws,  ch.  325.  The  per  capita  allowance  to  the  schools 
is  $350.  See  Laws,  1851,  ch.  272 ;  1854,  ch.  272 ;  1864,  ch.  555 ; 
1875,  ch.  213;  1876,  ch.  13;  1886,  ch.  615;  1894,  ch.  556;  1903, 
chs.  62,  223;  1909,  ch.  21;  1910,  ch.  140;  1912,  p.  405;  Cons. 
Laws,  1909,  p.  727ff.  The  state  allows  $300  a  year  to  a  deaf 
person  seeking  a  higher  education.    Laws,  1913,  ch.  175. 

*  There  have  been  a  number  of  private  schools  in  the 
state:  the  Bartlett  Family  School,  established  in  New  York 
City  in  1852,  in  1853  moved  to  Fishkill,  in  1854  to  Pough- 
keepsie,  and  discontinued  in  1861 ;  a  school  at  Niagara, 
1857-1860;  the  Home  for  the  Young  Deaf  in  New  York 
City,  organized  in  1854,  and  in  operation  from  1859  to  1862, 
which  was  intended  for  those  too  young  to  enter  the  New 
York  Institution,  and  which  received  a  number  of  con- 
tributions; a  class  in  the  Cayuga  Lake  Academy  at  Aurora, 
1871-1878 ;  Syle's  Free  Evening  Class  in  New  York  City,  prin- 
cipally for  teaching  trades  to  adults,  1874-1878;  the  Keeler 
School,  a  private  class  in  New  York  City,  1885-1897 ;  the  War- 
ren Articulation  School,  1890-1895 ;  and  the  Peet  School,  1893- 
1894. 

'Act,  Jan.  12,  1845;  Rev.  Code,  1854,  ch.  6;  Laws,  1870-1, 
ch.  35;  1873,  ch.  134;  1876,  ch.  156;  1879,  ch.  187;  1880,  p. 
170;  1881,  ch.  211.  At  first  the  counties  were  to  raise  $75 
by  taxation  for  each  pupil.  In  1876  a  tax  of  9  cents  on  $100 
was  laid  for  the  benefit  of  the  school.     This  school  has  re- 


230  THE  DEAF 

the  blind.  In  1894  a  school  was  opened  at 
Morganton  for  the  white  deaf/  the  colored  re- 
maining in  a  department  of  the  former  school. 
Both  schools  are  controlled  by  boards  of  di- 
rectors— eleven  for  the  Raleigh  and  seven  for 
the  Morganton — and  are  inspected  by  the  de- 
partments of  education  and  of  charities.^ 

North  Dakota,  Prior  to  the  opening  of  a  state 
school,  children  were  sent  to  schools  in  other 
states.  In  1890  the  state  institution  was  created 
at  Devil's  Lake.^  It  is  in  charge  of  the 
state  board  of  control.*  On  the  admission  of 
North  Dakota  as  a  state,  40,000  acres  of  the 
public  land  were  set  aside  for  the  benefit  of  the 
school.  It  is  further  supported  by  a  tax  of  six 
per  cent  of  one  mill  on  the  assessed  property 
valuation  of  the  state.^ 

Ohio.  A  movement  was  on  foot  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  school  at  Cincinnati  in  1821,  but 
did  not  succeed.  A  private  school  was  opened 
in  1827  at  Tallmadge,  which  lasted  two  years. 
The  state  school  was  established  at  Columbus  in 

ceived  a  gift  of  $4,000.  In  1869  colored  deaf  and  blind  were 
admitted,  and  in  1872  a  department  was  created  for  them, 
this  being  the  first  public  action  in  the  United  States  for  their 
education.  See  Laws,  1872,  ch.  134;  Report  of  North  Carolina 
Institution,  1869,  p.  13. 

^Laws,  1891,  ch.  399;  1893,  ch.  69. 

'Laws,  1901,  chs.  210,  707;  1907,  chs.  929,  1007;  Rev.  Code, 
1905,  §  4187fif. 

•Laws,  1890,  ch.  161. 

*Laws,  1891,  chs.  56,  133;  1893,  ch.  122;  1897,  ch.  72;  1905, 
chs.  100,  103;  Rev.  Code,  1905,  §  1133fif. 

•From  this  $1,000  a  month  is  received. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  ^31 

1829.^  It  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  state 
board  of  administration.^  Five  day  schools  are 
in  operation  in  the  state:  Cincinnati,  opened  in 
1886;  Cleveland,  1892;  Dayton,  1899;  Ashta- 
bula, 1903;  and  Toledo,  1911."  There  are  two 
private  schools  in  Cincinnati:  one,  the  Notre 
Dame,  under  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  opened 
in  1890,  and  the  other  in  1906.^ 

Oklahoma,  Before  creating  an  institution  of 
its  own,  Oklahoma  provided  for  the  education  of 
its  deaf  children  in  a  private  school  at  Guthrie, 

^Laws,  1822,  p.  5;  1827,  p.  130;  1831,  p.  427;  1832,  p.  20; 
1834,  p.  39 ;  1837,  p.  118 ;  1844,  p.  8 ;  1846,  p.  Ill ;  1854,  p.  71 ; 
1856,  pp.  42,  96;  1866,  p.  116;  1867,  p.  124.  To  the  school  at 
Tallmadge  the  legislature  granted  $100  a  year  for  two  years. 
The  state  school  was  at  first  allowed  the  benefit  from  the  taxes 
on  auction  sales  in  Hamilton  County,  which  netted  $2,000  a 
year  at  first,  but  afterward  of  diminishing  amounts.  The  lots 
for  the  school  were  bought  "  at  a  price  considerably  below  their 
supposed  value".  A  donation  of  $15,000  has  also  been  re- 
ceived by  this  school.  In  1910  180  acres  of  land  were  be- 
queathed to  the  schools  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind. 

2  Laws,  1885,  p.  79;  1902,  p.  273;  1908,  p.  598;  1911,  p.  211; 
Gen.  Code,  1910,  §  1872ff. 

^  There  was  a  school  also  in  Cleveland  from  1871  to  1874, 
and  in  Toledo  from  1890  to  1893.  In  Cincinnati  a  school  was 
established  by  the  city  in  1875,  and  in  1888  incorporated  with 
the  present  one,  which  had  been  started  as  a  private  school. 
Both  the  Cincinnati  and  Cleveland  schools  received  aid  from 
the  state,  but  in  1902  this  was  held  up  by  the  courts.  Other 
day  schools  have  been  at  Elyria  from  1898  to  1907;  at  Canton 
from  1902  to  1904;  and  at  Conneaut  from  1909  to  1912.  Ac- 
cording to  the  present  law,  on  the  application  of  a  local  board, 
schools  may  be  established;  $150  may  be  allowed  from  the 
state  school  funds  for  each  pupil;  and  the  state  commissioner 
is  to  appoint  teachers,  and  inspect  schools.  Laws,  1902,  p.  37; 
1906,  p.  219;  1913,  p.  270;  Gen.  Code,  §  7755.  In  1898  the 
establishment  of  day  schools  was  made  obligatory  in  certain 
cities.  Laws,  pp.  186,  236.  Local  tax  levies  have  been  of 
considerable  aid  in  this  state. 

*A  private  school  was  in  operation  in  Cincinnati  from  1887 
to  1890,  and  in  Columbus  from  1902  to  1904. 


232  THE  DEAF 

which  had  been  opened  in  1898.^  In  1908  the 
state  school  was  established  at  Sulphur,^  and  in 
1909  a  second  school  was  opened  at  Taft,  known 
as  the  Industrial  Institute  for  the  Deaf,  the  Blind 
and  Orphans  of  the  Colored  Race.^  The  former 
school  is  directed  by  a  board  of  four  trustees, 
and  the  latter  by  a  board  of  five  regents,  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  being 
a  member  of  each.  The  schools  are  related  to 
the  state  department  of  education,  and  are  in- 
spected by  that  of  charities.* 

Oregon,  A  private  school  was  started  at 
Salem  in  1870,  which  in  1874  was  taken  over  by 
the  state.^  It  is  now  administered  by  the  state 
board  of  control.^  There  is  a  day  school  in 
Portland,  opened  in  1908,  and  supported  by  the 
city. 

*Laws,  1897,  ch.  16;  Rev.  Stat.,  1903,  §  3960;  Governor's 
Message,  1903,  p.  13.  In  1899  a  tax  of  two-fifths  of  a  mill  was 
levied  for  the  benefit  of  the  deaf.  Laws,  p.  221.  There  was 
a  private  school  at  Byron  from  1898  to  1899. 

'Laws,  p.  617. 

"»Laws,  p.  546. 

*Laws,  1909,  p.  534;  1913,  p.  385;  Rev.  Laws,  1910,  §§  6986, 
7014.  The  public  land  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  is  said  to 
be  worth  $350,000.  The  school  at  Sulphur  was  given  60  acres 
of  land  by  the  city,  and  that  at  Taft  100  acres  by  citizens. 

'Laws,  1872,  p.  102;  1874,  p.  88;  1880,  p.  IS.  The  legisla- 
ture made  an  appropriation  to  the  school  while  it  was  still  in 
private  hands.  It  was  largely  founded  through  the  efforts  of 
the  Society  to  Promote  the  Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes.  Dona- 
tions amounting  to  two  or  three  thousand  dollars,  and  four 
lots,  were  received  at  the  beginning. 

•  Laws,  1891,  p.  138 ;  1893,  p.  180 ;  1901,  p.  300 ;  1907,  ch.  79 ; 
1913,  pp.  120,  683 ;  Oregon  Laws,  1910,  ch.  23.  The  school  was 
formerly  under  the  state  board  of  education. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  233 

Pennsylvania,  There  are  four  institutions  and 
two  private  schools  in  this  state.  Two  of  the 
institutions  are  private  corporations  receiving 
state  aid,  and  two  are  state-owned  schools.  The 
first  to  be  established  was  the  Pennsylvania  In- 
stitution, which  was  opened  in  1820  in  Philadel- 
phia.^ Friends  of  this  school  have  been  gen- 
erous from  the  start,  and  it  has  probably  re- 
ceived several  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  gifts. 
The  governing  board  is  composed  of  twenty- 
seven  members.^  The  Western  Pennsylvania 
Institution  near  Pittsburg  was  established  in 
1876,  and  was  the  result  of  a  church  mission 
which  had  begun  in  1868  and  developed  into  a 
day  school.  It  is  directed  also  by  a  board  of 
twenty-seven  members.^  The  Pennsylvania 
Oral  School  was  founded  at  Scranton  in  1883. 
It  was  a  private  institution  till  1913,  when  it  was 
made  a  state  school.  It  is  governed  by  a  board 
of  eighteen  trustees,  six  of  whom  are  appointed 

*A  charter  was  granted  in  1821.  Laws,  ch.  25.  See  also 
Laws,  1833,  p.  512;  1836,  ch.  268;  1838,  pp.  263,  398;  1844,  p. 
221;  J.  P.  Wickersham,  "History  of  Education  in  Pennsyl- 
vania", 1886,  p.  443;  Report,  1870,  appendix;  1875,  appendix. 

^  In  1889  a  gift  of  $200,000  was  received,  and  in  1892  one  of 
$50,000,  as  well  as  other  gifts.  There  are  over  400  life  mem- 
bers who  have  contributed  each  $30,  while  there  are  13 
scholarships  of  $5,000  each.  The  present  endowment  funds 
amount  to  about  $400,000,  as  we  are  advised.  See  also  Reports 
of  State  Board  of  Charities.  From  1881  to  1885  a  day  school 
was  conducted  as  part  of  the  institution. 

'Laws,  1872,  p.  97;  1881,  p.  149.  Aid  was  received  from 
the  city  of  Pittsburg  at  first.  The  school  has  been  given  over 
$100,000,  a  number  of  acres  of  land,  and  a  Carnegie  Library* 


THE  DEAF 

by  the  governor.^  The  Home  for  the  Training 
in  Speech  of  Deaf  Children  before  they  are  of 
school  age  was  started  in  Philadelphia  in  1892  as 
a  private  school,  and  then  adopted  by  the  state." 
It  is  under  a  board  of  five  trustees.  All  these 
schools  receive  appropriations  from  the  state, 
and  are  visited  by  the  state  board  of  charities.* 
The  private  schools  are  the  Forrest  Hall  in 
Philadelphia,  opened  in  1901,  the  De  Paul  In- 
stitute of  Pittsburg,  opened  in  1908,  and  the 
Archbishop  Ryan  Memorial  Institute  in  Phila- 
delphia, opened  in  1912.  To  these  a  certain 
amount  of  state  aid  is  granted.* 

Rhode  Island,  In  1842  the  state  began  to  send 
its  deaf  children  to  the  school  at  Hartford,  a 
policy  continued  till  a  local  school  was  created.^ 
In  1877  a  class  for  the  deaf  was  started  in 
Providence,  for  the  benefit  of  which  the  state 
made  appropriations,  and  which  was  soon  taken 
over  as  a  state  school.^    It  is  now  under  a  board 

*Laws,  1887,  p.  238.  There  have  been  some  gifts,  including 
five  acres  of  land. 

=^Laws,  1891,  p.  371;  1893,  p.  272.  About  $7,000  came  at 
the  beginning  as  well  as  some  land.  Contributions  now  aver- 
age several  thousand  dollars  a  year. 

'Laws,  1871,  p.  245;  1872,  p.  9;  1893,  p.  250;  1909,  p.  405; 
Purdon's  Digest,  1903,  p.  1281ff.  The  per  capita  appropri- 
ations to  the  several  schools  range  from  $260  to  $357.  In 
school  districts  of  20,000  population,  special  schools  with  eight 
or  more  pupils  may  be  established.     Laws,  1876,  p.  157. 

*  There  have  been  day  schools  at  Pittsburg,  1869-1876;  Erie, 
1874-1884;  Allegheny,  1875-1870;  and  Philadelphia,  1880-1881. 
There  was  a  private  school  in  Philadelphia  from  1885  to  1889. 

"Rev.  Stat.,  1857,  p.  158. 

•Laws,   1878,   p.   200. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  235 

of  eleven  trustees,  including  the  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor,  and  is  related  to  the  state 
board  of  education.^ 

South  Carolina,  A  school  was  proposed  in 
this  state  in  1821,^  but  it  was  some  years  later 
that  one  was  established.  In  1834  the  state  be- 
gan sending  deaf  children  to  the  Hartford 
school.^  In  1849  a  private  school  was  opened 
at  Cedar  Springs  as  a  department  in  a  hearing 
school,  and  in  1857  this  was  adopted  by  the 
state.*  The  school  is  for  the  deaf  and  blind,  and 
is  under  a  board  of  five  commissioners,  one  of 
whom  is  the  state  superintendent  of  education.^ 

South  Dakota,  In  1880  a  private  school  was 
started  at  Sioux  Falls  which  the  territory  of 
Dakota  soon  took  over,^  before  this  some  of 
the  deaf  having  been  sent  to  the  schools  in  Iowa, 
Nebraska  and  Minnesota.  In  1889  when  South 
Dakota  was  admitted  as  a  state,  the  school  was 
retained  at  the  same  location;  and  Congress 
granted  it  40,000  acres  of  the  public  land.    The 

*Laws,  1891,  ch.  922;  1896,  chs.  324,  332;  1893,  ch.  1175; 
1901,  ch.  809;  Gen.  Laws,  1909,  chs.  100,  101.  The  governor 
makes  the  appointments.  There  is  a  state  board  of  purchases 
and  supplies  in  connection  with  the  school. 

2  Act,  Dec.  20. 

"Laws,  1834,  p.  513.  At  first  $2,500  was  appropriated. 
See  also  Laws,  1848,  p.  524. 

*Laws,  1852,  p.  187;  1871,  p.  609. 

=  Laws,  1878,  p.  707;  1895,  ch.  521;  1902,  ch.  546;  1910,  ch. 
468;  Code,  1912,  ch.  27.  A  department  for  the  colored  was 
created  in  1883. 

•Laws  of  Dakota,  1881,  pp.  16,  65;  1883,  ch.  26;  1887,  ch. 
41;  Comp.  Laws,  1887,  §  261ff.  Ten  acres  of  land  and  a  thou- 
sand dollars  or  more  were  given  to  the  school. 


236  THE  DEAF 

school  is  under  the  direction  of  the  state  board  of 
control.^  A  private  school  was  established  at 
Lead  in  1911,  known  as  the  Black  Hills  School. 

Tennessee,  The  state  school  was  established 
at  Knoxville  in  1845.^  It  is  under  a  board  of 
fourteen  trustees,  including  the  superintendent, 
of  public  instruction,  and  is  visited  by  the  state 
board  of  charities.^ 

Texas,  The  state  school  was  established  at 
Austin  in  i857,*  receiving  100,000  acres  of  the 
public  land  which  had  been  set  apart  by  the  state 
for  its  several  eleemosynary  institutions.  In 
1887  a  school  for  the  colored  deaf  and  blind  was 
opened  in  the  same  city.^  The  schools  are 
each  under  a  board  of  five  trustees.^ 

Utah,    In  1884  a  class  for  the  deaf  was  begun  g 
at  the  state  university  at  Ogden,  and  in  1888  a 
department  was  created.    In  1892  the  state  school 
was  established.'^    It  is  for  both  the  deaf  and  the 
blind,  and  is  under  a  board  of  six  trustees,  includ- 

*Laws,  1907,  ch.  137;  Comp.  Laws,  1910,  p.  ISOfif. 

'Act,  Jan.  29,' 1844;  Laws,  1845-6,  ch.  157;  1849-^0,  ch.  127; 
Code,  1858,  p.  338;  Laws,  1860,  chs.  19,  69;  1866-7,  ch.  42. 
The  law  creating  the  school  was  appended  to  one  providing 
for  the  blind  alone.  At  the  beginning  $6,400  and  two  acres  of 
land  were  given  to  it. 

'Laws,  1877,  ch.  49;  Ann.  Code,  1896,  §§  2660-2670.  A 
department  for  the  colored  was  created  in  1881.    Laws,  ch.  109. 

*Laws,  1856,  p.  66;  1875,  p.  66;  1883,  p.  109. 

'Laws,  p.  150. 

"Laws,  1902,  ch.  10;  1905,  p.  47;  Rev.  Stat,  1911,  p.  68. 

'  Laws,  1888,  pp.  33,  44 ;  1890,  pp.  44,  68 ;  Comp.  Stat.,  1888, 
p.  662.  For  two  years  the  school  was  conducted  as  a  day 
school.  It  received  some  county  assistance  at  first,  and  there 
were  some  private  donationa* 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  237 

ing  the  attorney-general.^  On  the  admission  of 
UtaJi  as  a  state,  200,000  acres  of  the  public  land 
were  bestowed  upon  the  school. 

Vermont.  In  1825  the  state  began  to  send 
pupils  to  the  American  School,^  and  later  to  the 
schools  in  Massachusetts  as  well.^  In  1912  a 
school  for  the  deaf  and  blind  was  established  at 
Brattleboro,  known  as  the  Austine  Institute.  It 
is  a  private  institution,  with  a  board  of  six 
trustees,  but  receiving  state  aid  and  under  state 
supervision.* 

Virginia.  A  private  school  was  started  in  1812 
in  Goochland  County,  thence  moved  to  Cobbs, 
and  finally  to  Manchester,  coming  to  an  end  in 
1819.  The  state  school  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind 
was  established  at  Staunton  in  1839,  though 
planned  several  years  before.^  In  1909  a  school 
for  the  colored  deaf  and  blind  was  created  at 
Newport  News.^     The  first  school  is  under  a 

*Laws,  1892,  p.  10;  1894,  ch.  26;  1896,  p.  100;  1897,  p.  36; 

1898,  ch.  20 ;  1903,  p.  51 ;  1907,  pp.  14,  59 ;  1911,  ch.  98 ;  Comp. 
Laws,  1907,  p.  789ff. 

2  In  1817  a  census  of  the  deaf  was  taken.    Laws,  no.  25. 

'Laws,  1823,  no.  40;  1825,  no.  21;  1833,  no.  21;  1839,  p. 
121 ;  Rev.  Stat.,  1840,  p.  121 ;  Laws,  1841,  no.  22 ;  1842,  no.  16 ; 
1858,  no.  3;  1872.  nos.  16,  19;  1892,  no.  27;  1898,  chs.  29,  30; 

1899,  no.  27;  1906,  chs.  55,  56;  Pub.  Stat,  1906,  ch.  60. 
"Laws,  1908,  p.  490;  1910,  p.  84.  The  governor  is  commis- 
sioner for  the  deaf,  and  designates  and  commits  them.  This 
school  resulted  from  a  fund  of  $50,000,  which  was  bequeathed 
for  a  "  hospital  for  the  temporary  treatment  of  strangers  and 
local  invalids  peculiarly  situated",  but  which  the  court  al- 
lowed to  be  used  for  the  school. 

"Laws,  1838,  ch.  19;  1839,  p.  205;  1845,  p.  385;  1846,  p.  17; 
1849,  p.  385;  1856,  p.  81.  In  1825  a  committee  was  sent  to 
Kentucky  to  examine  the  school.  In  1835  a  private  associ- 
ation was  formed  to  organize  a  school. 

"Laws,  ch.  164. 


THE  DEAF 

board  of  seven  trustees,  including  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  and  the  second 
under  a  board  of  five.  Both  are  visited  by  the 
state  board  of  charities.^ 

Washington,  Before  the  creation  of  a  state 
school  some  of  the  deaf  children  were  sent  to 
Oregon  for  instruction.^  In  1885  a  private 
school  was  started  at  Tacoma,  which  lasted  one 
year.  The  state  school  was  established  at  Van- 
couver in  1886.^  It  is  governed  by  the  state 
board  of  control.*  At  Seattle  and  Tacoma 
there  are  day  schools  supported  by  the  respective 
cities,  the  former  opened  in  1906  and  the  latter 
in  1908. 

West  Virginia.  The  state  school  for  the  deaf 
and  the  blind  was  opened  at  Romney  in  1870,^ 
before  which  time  children  had  been  sent  to  the 
schools  in  Virginia  and  Ohio.^     The  school  is 

^Laws,  1875,  ch.  177;  1879,  ch.  244;  1896,  ch.  702;  1898,  p. 
276 ;  1903,  ch.  266 ;  1904,  p.  75 ;  Code,  1904,  ch.  74.  The  Staun- 
ton school  received  some  private  donations  at  first,  and  5  acres 
of  land,  besides  a  later  legacy  of  $3,000  for  poor  deaf  children ; 
and  the  Newport  News  school  has  received  a  few  gifts,  in- 
cluding some  land. 

•Laws,  1881,  p.  211. 

'Laws,  1886,  p.  136.  At  the  beginning  100  acres  of  land 
were  donated.  The  school  seems  not  to  have  profited  by  the 
gift  from  Congress  of  200,000  acres  for  charitable  and  re- 
formatory institutions. 

*Laws,  1890,  p.  497;  1897,  p.  443;  1903,  p.  266;  1905,  ch. 
139;  1907,  p.  238;  1909,  p.  258;  1912,  ch.  10;  Code  and  Stat, 
1910,  §  4387ff.  There  was  a  department  for  the  feeble-minded 
till  1906,  and  for  the  blind  till  1912,  all  being  known  as  the 
"  school  for  defective  youth  ". 

"^Laws,  1870,  ch.  116;  1871,  ch.  71.  A  building  and  15 
acres  of  land  were  given  by  the  city. 

•Laws,  1868,  ch.  71. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  239 

under  a  board  of  nine  regents,  while  the  state 
board  of  control  has  charge  of  financial  affairs.^ 
Wisconsin,  Prior  to  the  establishment  of  a 
school  of  its  own,  Wisconsin  sent  some  of  its  deaf 
children  to  the  Illinois  School.  The  state  insti- 
tution, which  had  been  planned  in  1843,  was 
opened  in  1852  at  Delavan,  resulting  from  a  pri- 
vate school  started  two  years  previously.^  It 
is  under  the  direction  of  the  state  board  of 
control.^  There  are  24  day  schools  in  the 
state,  operating  under  the  state  law :  *  Antigo, 
opened  in  1906;  Appleton,  1896;  Ashland,  1898; 
Black  River  Falls,  1897;  Bloomington,  1906; 

*Laws,  1887,  ch.  52;  1895,  chs.  25,  39;  1897,  ch.  25;  1905, 
ch.  66;  Code,  1906,  §  1774ff.  Colored  pupils  are  sent  to 
Maryland  for  education. 

» Laws,  1852,  ch.  481 ;  1857,  ch.  34 ;  1858,  ch.  102 ;  Rev.  Stat., 
1858,  ch.  186.    Eleven  acres  of  land  were  given  to  the  school. 

'Laws,  1866,  ch.  105;  1869,  ch.  8;  1880,  ch.  116;  1881,  ch. 
298;  1883,  ch.  268;  1891,  ch.  331;  1893,  ch.  290;  1907,  ch.  128; 
Rev.  Stat,  1898,  ch.  38. 

*Laws,  1885,  ch.  315;  1897,  ch.  321;  1901,  ch.  422;  1903, 
ch.  86;  1907,  ch.  128;  Rev.  Stat.,  1898,  §  578.  It  is  pro- 
vided that  on  the  application  of  a  local  board  of  education, 
the  state  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Board  of  Control,  may  authorize  the  establishment 
of  schools.  Inspectors  are  also  appointed  by  him,  and  the 
creation  of  schools  may  be  compelled  by  the  county  judge.  For 
each  pupil  the  amount  first  allowed  was  $100,  then  $125,  and 
now  $150.  Fctr  the  board  of  pupils  who  do  not  live  near  the 
school,  $100  additional  is  allowed.  The  first  day  school  in  the 
state  was  a  private  one  at  Milwaukee,  founded  in  1878  and 
lasting  till  1885,  when  the  law  was  enacted.  It  was  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Wisconsin  Phonological  Institute,  $15,000  being 
contributed  for  it  by  a  ladies'  society,  and  a  city  allowance 
being  made  to  it  in  1883.  There  have  been  other  day  schools 
in  the  state:  Manitowac,  1893-1901;  Oconto,  1898-1899;  Neils- 
ville,  1898-1905;  Sparta,  1899-1909;  Tomah,  1899-1900; 
Rhinelander,  1902-1904 ;  and  Waupaca,  1905-1906.  There  was 
another  school  in  Oshkosh  from  1888  to  1889. 


240  THE  DEAF 

Eau  Claire,  1895;  Fond  du  Lac,  1895;  Green 
Bay,  1897;  Kenosha,  1913;  La  Crosse,  1899; 
Madison,  1908;  Marinette,  1895;  Marshfield, 
1912;  Milwaukee,  1898;  Mineral  Point,  1912; 
New  London,  1906;  Oshkosh,  1895;  Platteville, 
1906;  Racine,  1900;  Rice  Lake,  1907;  Sheboy- 
gan, 1894;  Stevens  Point,  1905;  West  Superior, 
1897;  and  Wausau,  1890.  A  private  school,  the 
St.  John's  Institute,  was  established  at  St. 
Francis  in  1876,  and  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis. 

Wyoming,  Deaf  children  have  been  sent  since 
1886  to  the  schools  in  California,  Utah,  Colorado 
and  Montana,  the  state  board  of  charities  and  re- 
form having  them  in  charge.^ 

The  American  Possessions,  Outside  of  the 
United  States  proper  very  little  has  been  done  for 
the  education  of  the  deaf.  In  the  Philippine 
Islands  a  school  has  been  established,  this  being 
opened  at  Manila  in  1907.^  A  school  under 
Roman  Catholic  auspices  was  started  in  Porto 
Rico  in  1911 ;  and  it  is  possible  that  one  under  the 

^Laws,  1886,  ch.  77;  1891,  ch.  15;  1893,  ch. -82;  1895,  ch. 
25;  1907,  ch.  10;  Comp.  Stat.,  1910,  ch.  48.  It  has  been  pro- 
vided that  when  there  are  as  many  as  12  applicants,  a  state 
school  will  be  organized.  A  building  was  erected  and  de- 
signed for  the  school  in  1897,  but  was  set  aside  for  military 
purposes.  By  the  act  of  admission  to  the  Union,  30,000  acres 
of  land  were  granted  for  the  school.  The  income  from  this 
fund  in  1910  was  $2,849. 

2  See  Annals,  lii.,  1907,  p.  208;  lui.,  1908,  p.  173;  liv., 
1909,  p.  193;  Association  RevieWy  ix.,  1907,  p.  572.  The 
school  opened  with  22  pupils. 


PROVISION  BY  STATES  Ml 

direction  of  the  state  will  be  created  in  time,  a 
school  for  the  blind  having  already  been  opened. 
In  Alaska  there  is  no  school,  though  the  deaf 
have  been  looked  after  to  some  extent  by  mis- 
sionaries/ No  provision  has  been  made  in  the 
Panama  Canal  Zone  or  the  Hawaiian  Islands.^ 

*  See  report  of  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson,  Proceedings  of  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Corrections,  1895,  p.  322.  In  the  Re- 
port of  the  Department  of  the  Interior  for  1908,  pp.  274,  278, 
we  have  the  following :  "  Congress  in  its  appropriations  for 
the  education  of  the  natives  has  also  provided  for  their  sup- 
port. Acting  under  this  authority,  an  effort  is  being  made  to 
reach  the  sick  and  indigent".  It  is  possible  that  the  needs  of 
the  deaf  will  be  discovered  in  this  way. 

*In  the  Report  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  to  the 
Hawaiian  legislature,  April  14,  1854,  p.  17,  it  is  stated :  "  Pro- 
vision for  the  deaf,  dumb  and  blind:  No  provision  for  such 
sufferers  among  us,  and  from  the  returns  of  the  census  there 
are  on  the  islands  106  deaf  and  dumb,  and  329  blind".  No 
mention  of  "such  sufferers"  has  been  found  in  a  later  report. 
For  much  of  the  information  concerning  the  American  pos- 
sessions presented  here,  the  writer  is  indebted  to  the  Chief 
Bibliographer  of  the  Library  of  Congress. 


J 


A.^- 


L^- 


CHAPTER  XV 

CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS  FOR  SCHOOLS 
Extent  of  Constitutional  Provisions 

NOT  only  has  provision  for  the  education 
of  the  deaf  been  consummated  in  all  the 
states,  but  in  some  of  them  this  provision 
has  been  buttressed,  as  it  were,  by  a  permanent 
guarantee  in  the  organic  law.  This  regard,  while 
not  necessary  practically  for  the  continuance  of 
the  schools,  is  none  the  less  commendable, — and 
indeed  is  one  that  should  be  declared  in  every 
state.  Such  provision  concerning  the  education 
of  the  deaf,  more  direct  in  some  than  in  others,  is 
found  in  the  constitutions  of  twenty-seven,  or  a 
little  over  half  of  the  states.  These  are  Alabama, 
Arizona,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Florida,  Idaho, 
Indiana,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Min- 
nesota, Mississippi,  Montana,  Nevada,  New 
Mexico,  New  York,  North  Carolina,  North 
Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  South  Carolina,  South 
Dakota,  Texas,  Utah,  Virginia,  Washington,  and 
West  Virginia.^ 

*  The  constitutions  of  most  of  the  states  provide  for  the  edu- 
cation of  all  their  children,  and  the  deaf  could  well  be  in- 
cluded here.    Moreover,  in  the  constitution  of  Nebraska  (VIII., 

242 


CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS         MS 

New  York  in  1846  was  the  first  state  to  make 
reference  thus  to  a  school  for  the  deaf.  Mich- 
igan, however,  in  1850  was  the  first  state  to 
provide  directly  for  their  education,  followed  in 
1851  by  Indiana  and  Ohio.  Of  the  forty-two 
states  adopting  constitutions  since  1846,  twenty- 
seven  have  made  reference  to  schools,  while  fif- 
teen have  failed  to  do  so.  Of  the  twenty  states 
adopting  constitutions  since  1889,  sixteen  have 
made  such  provision.^  It  is  to  be  noted,  however, 
that  many  of  the  states  with  special  reference  to 
the  education  of  the  deaf  have  comparatively  re- 
cent constitutions,  while  in  others  where  no  such 
provision  is  found,  the  present  constitutions  often 
date  far  back  in  our  national  history,  and  were 
adopted  before  attention  had  been  called  to  the 
needs  of  the  deaf  and  sfmilar  classes.  Hence, 
in  general,  it  is  not  to  be  concluded  from  the 
mere  presence  or  absence  of  a  reference  in  the 
constitution  that  certain  states  are  more  solicitous 
than  others  for  the  education  of  their  deaf  chil- 
dren. 

12)  there  is  a  provision  for  children  growing  up  in  mendi- 
cancy and  crime;  and  in  that  of  Wyoming  (VII.,  18)  that  such 
charitable,  penal  or  reformatory  institutions  shall  be  estab- 
lished as  the  claims  of  humanity  and  the  public  good  many  re- 
quire. In  either  of  these  the  provision  might  be  construed  to 
apply  to  schools  for  the  deaf. 

^  In  the  constitutions  of  some  states,  as  Michigan,  Mississippi, 
New  York,  and  South  Carolina,  there  were  provisions  in  the 
preceding  as  well  as  the  present  drafts. 


244  THE  DEAF 

Language  and  Forms  of  Provisions 

The  language  of  these  constitutional  provisions 
for  schools  for  the  deaf  varies  to  some  extent.^ 
In  all  of  the  constitutions,  with  the  exception  of 
that  in  Minnesota,  schools  for  the  deaf  are 
coupled  with  those  for  the  blind,  and  unless  the 
provision  is  under  the  caption  of  "  education," 
institutions  for  the  insane  are  likewise  provided 
for  in  the  same  clause.  In  several  instances  there 
is  more  than  one  reference  to  the  school  for  the 
deaf.2 

The  most  usual  statement  is  that  institutions 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind,  and  the  insane 
shall  be  estabhshed  and  maintained,  or  fos- 
tered and  supported,  by  the  state,  as  in  Arizona,^ 
Colorado,*    Florida,^    Idaho,^    Kansas,"^    Mich- 

^  In  the  constitutions  no  reference  is  made  to  the  deaf  other 
than  in  provisions  for  schools,  except  in  the  case  of  Mississippi, 
where  exemption  from  a  certain  tax  is  found. 

'  In  these  constitutional  references,  the  provision  is  as  a 
rule  found  under  some  general  head  as  "  public  institutions  ", 
"  state  institutions  ",  or  "  miscellaneous  ".  In  the  South  Caro- 
lina constitution  the  provision  is  found  under  the  caption 
"  charitable ",  and  in  the  North  Carolina  under  "  charitable 
and  penal ".  Under  the  heading  of  "  education  "  are  the  pro- 
visions in  the  constitutions  of  Arizona  (one  clause),  Colorado 
(as  an  amendment),  Michigan,  Mississippi,  New  Mexico, 
Oklahoma  (one  clause),  Texas  (though  under  the  sub-title 
("charitable"),  Utah   (one  clause),  and  Virginia. 

•XXII.,  15;  XL,  1. 

*VIII.,  1.  A  later  amendment  classifies  it  with  the  educa- 
tional institutions  of  the  state. 

*XIII.,  1.  Adopted  the  same  year  that  the  school  was  es- 
tablished. 

« X.,  1. 

'  VII.,  1. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS         U5 

igan/  Montana,^  Nevada,^  Ohio,*  South  Caro- 
lina,^ Utah,^  and  Washington^  In  the  South 
Carolina  constitution  the  school  is  also  declared 
to  be  exempted  from  taxation;  and  in  the  Utah 
constitution  a  further  provision  establishes  the 
location,  and  guarantees  against  diversion  the 
lands  granted  by  the  United  States.^  In  the 
constitutions  of  Arkansas,®  Indiana,^^  Mississ- 
ippi,^^ and  Oklahoma,^^  the  statement  or  its 
equivalent  is  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  legislature 
to  provide  by  law  for  the  support  of  institutions 
for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  blind, 
and  for  the  insane. 

In  other  states  less  direct  or  authoritative 
references  are  found.  In  West  Virginia  ^^  the 
legislature  "  may  make  suitable  provision  for  the 
blind,  mute  and  insane  whenever  it  may  be 
practicable,"  while  in  North  Carolina  ^*  the  mat- 
ter seems  also  optional.    In  the  Minnesota  con- 

»XI.,  15. 

»X.,  1;  XL,  12. 

^XIII.,  1. 

*VII.,  1. 

•  XII.,  1 ;  X.,  4. 

"  X.,  10 ;  XIX.,  2,  3. 

'XIII.,  1. 

*It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  nearly  all  the  states  having  gov- 
ernment donations  of  land,  reference  is  made  to  its  inviol- 
ability. 

»XIX.,  19. 

"Vlil.,209. 
"XII.,  2;  XXL,  1. 
"XIL,  12. 
"XL,  10. 


246  THE  DEAF 

stitution  ^  there  is  an  amendment  by  which  the 
public  debt  is  increased  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing certain  public  institutions,  including  the 
school  for  the  deaf.  In  the  South  Dakota  con- 
stitution ^  the  several  charitable  and  penal  insti- 
tutions are  enumerated,  among  which  is  the  school 
for  the  deaf,  while  direction  is  also  given  as  to  the 
sale  of  land  held  for  the  benefit  of  the  school. 
In  New  Mexico  ^  the  school  is  enumerated 
among  the  educational  institutions,  reference  also 
being  made  to  the  public  land ;  and  in  Virginia  * 
the  school  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
composition  of  the  state  board  of  education.  In 
the  Texas  constitution  ^  a  permanent  fund  is 
provided  from  the  lands  which  have  been  granted 
prior  to  its  adoption,  while  another  reference  is 
made  to  the  printing  to  be  done  at  the  school. 
In  the  North  Dakota  constitution^  the  lands 
from  Congress  are  declared  to  be  a  perpetual 
fund  and  inviolable,  while  in  another  place  the 
location  of  the  school  is  provided  for.  In  the 
Alabama  constitution  "^  the  legislature  is  ex- 
pressly declared  not  to  be  empowered  to  change 
the  location  of  the  school.    In  New  York  ^  the 

*IX.,  14,  as  amended. 

«XIV.,  1. 

•XII.,  11. 

*IX.,  130. 

•VII.,  9;   XVI.,  21. 

•IX.,  159;  XIX.,  215.     See  also  amendment,  1904,  sec.  5. 

»XIV.,  267. 

»VIII.,  9,  14. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  PROVISIONS         247 

constitutional  provisions  have  reference  to  the 
subsidies  granted  to  private  institutions,  it  being 
stated  that  "  nothing  in  the  constitution  shall  pre- 
vent the  legislature  from  making  such  provision 
for  the  education  and  support  of  the  blind,  the 

deaf  and  dumb,  and  juvenile  delinquents 

as  it  may  deem  proper,"  and  that  the  legisla- 
ture is  not  to  be  prohibited  from  action  by  the 
prohibition  of  the  credit  or  land  of  the  state  being 
"  given  to  private  associations,  corporations  and 
undertakings."  In  Louisiana  ^  a  similar,  though 
less  explicit,  reference  to  state  aid  is  found, 

»53. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

QUESTION  OF  THE  CHARITY  CONNECTION 
OF  SCHOOLS 

Institutions  Sometimes  Regarded  as  Educational: 
Sometimes  as  Charitable 

IN  considering  the  relation  of  the  state  to  its 
schools  for  the  deaf,  the  question  is  raised  as 
to  the  way  they  are  regarded  by  the  state,  and 
in  what  scheme  of  classification  they  have  been 
assigned.  We  find  that  with  many  of  the  states 
the  institutions  are  held  to  be  charitable,  and  the 
further  question  is  presented  as  to  whether  this 
is  proper  and  just. 

In  times  past  this  has  been  the  usual  classifica- 
tion, but  of  late  years  an  increasing  number  of 
states  have  made  a  change  and  now  regard  the 
institutions  as  merely  educational.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  say  with  precision  to  what  scheme  of 
classification  the  schools  in  the  several  states 
should  be  ascribed;  and  in  quite  a  number  the 
lines  shade  off  one  into  the  other.  From  what 
has  been  said  in  the  preceding  chapters  and  also 
from  certain  legislative  classification,  it  would 
seem  that  the  schools  in  the  following  states  are 
regarded  largely,  if  not  entirely,  as  educational: 

248 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  249 

Alabama,  Arizona,  Colorado,  District  of  Colum- 
bia, Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  Missis- 
sippi, Montana,  New  Jersey,  Nevada,  New 
Mexico,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina, 
Texas,  Utah,  Vermont,  and  West  Virginia.  In 
about  half  of  the  states,  however,  the  institutions 
continue  to  be  regarded  as  charitable  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  from  their  connection  with  charity 
boards  or  from  some  other  classification.  Some 
are  recognized  as  educational,  but  at  the  same 
time  not  held  altogether  free  from  the  charitable 
touch.  ^ 

Chaeity  IN  Connection  with  Schools  for  the  Deaf 

Considerable  difficulty  at  the  outset  rests  with 
the  word  charity.  In  its  best  sense,  it  is  the  finest 
word  in  our  language,  and  from  its  springs  flow 
all  benevolence,  material  and  spiritual:  when 
looked  upon  scientifically  much  of  the  repug- 
nance and  prejudice  felt  toward  it  is  lost,  and  it 
becomes  the  touchstone  for  the  remedy  of  human 

*Thus,  in  addition  to  the  states  named  above,  in  the  con- 
stitutions of  Michigan,  Oklahoma  and  Virginia  the  institutions 
are  designated  educational.  In  certain  states  also,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  is  ex- 
officio  member  of  the  governing  board,  and  in  a  few  other 
states  report  is  made  to  the  department  of  education.  In 
New  York  and  North  Carolina  the  schools  are  visited  by  this 
department.  In  a  number  also  an  educational  classification 
is  found  in  some  of  the  statutory  references  or  captions.  See 
in  particular  on  this  subject,  Annals,  xlviii.,  1903,  p.  348; 
Ivlii.,  1913,  p.  327. 


250  THE  DEAF 

ills.  In  one  sense,  education  is  most  surely  and 
deeply  charitable,  whether  or  not  it  is  held  to  be 
but  the  equipment  of  the  state  for  its  self-preser- 
vation. This  has  long  been  accepted,  and  so  unan- 
imously have  the  states  undertaken  the  instruc- 
tion of  their  children  that  its  very  discussion  is 
now  unknown. 

But  popularly  conceived,  charity  is  still  some- 
thing doled  out  and  granted  by  the  giver  as  a 
matter  of  grace,  and  to  the  recipient  are  carried 
associations  that  do  not  comport  with  indepen- 
dence and  manliness  of  character.  Besides, 
education  has  long  ceased  to  be  thought  of  as 
charitable,  and  only  such  institutions  as  are  for 
the  education  of  the  deaf  and  blind  are  left  with 
the  undesirable  signification  of  the  word.  In 
addition,  the  state  maintains  institutions  for  cer- 
tain of  its  classes,  as  the  insane,  the  feeble-minded 
and  the  infirm,  which  as  a  rule  are  in  no  sense 
educational  from  our  standpoint,  and  other  in- 
stitutions of  a  reformatory,  corrective  or  punitive 
character,  and  with  them  have  to  be  classed  the 
institutions  for  the  deaf,  all  being  known  as  the 
state's  "  charitable  institutions,"  or  "  state  institu- 
tions; "  while  the  public  rarely  makes  discrimina- 
tion, or  notes  the  distinctions  involved. 

The  chief  trouble,  then,  in  classifying  the 
schools  for  the  deaf  as  charitable  is  this  connec- 
tion of  the  word  charity,  and  the  grouping  of  the 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  251 

deaf  with  certain  other  parts  of  the  state's  popu- 
lation which  other  children  do  not  have  to  share. 
The  deaf  are  thus  differentiated  from  children 
who  have  no  defect  of  sense,  and  the  education  of 
the  one  is  thus  education,  and  of  the  other  char- 
ity. Schools  in  which  the  deaf  are  educated 
would  thus  seem  not  to  be  given  their  just  status. 
They  are  misrepresented  by  being  aligned,  on  the 
one  hand,  with  people  of  defective  or  diseased 
minds,  and  on  the  other,  with  the  state's  delin- 
quent and  criminal  classes.  The  deaf  thus  be- 
come wards  of  the  state,  and  constitute  one  of  its 
dependent  classes.  They  are  "  inmates  "  of  an 
"  eleemosynary  "  institution,  and  the  fact  that  it 
is  all  for  education  is  lost  sight  of.^ 

But,  we  are  told,  the  treatment  of  deaf  children 
should  rest  upon  an  altogether  different  basis, 
and  they  should,  even  in  appearance,  receive  an 
education  as  a  right  and  as  nothing  else.  Educa- 
tion as  the  paramount  privilege  of  American 
children  is  so  deeply  established  in  American  in- 
stitutions and  character  that  it  would  seem  to  be 
a  principle  to  be  applied  to  all  the  children  of  the 

^The  earlier  conception  of  the  schools  is  in  part  illustrated 
by  the  name  "  asylum "  given.  British  schools  were  often 
called  asylums  or  hospitals,  and  were  largely  founded  and  sup- 
ported by  charity.  Likewise  in  America  the  term  "  asylum  " 
was  frequently  given  to  the  schools  when  first  started.  But 
the  name  has  now  been  generally  discarded,  and  in  but  one 
state  is  the  title  retained,  New  Mexico.  "  School "  is  now 
mostly  used,  while  in  a  few  "  institution "  is  employed.  See 
Annals,  loc.  cit.  See  also  Report  of  Board  of  Penal,  Pauper 
and  Charitable  Institutions  of  Michigan,  1878,  p.  41. 


252  THE  DEAF 

state.  Admission  into  schools  for  the  deaf  has 
become  more  and  more  like  that  in  the  regular 
schools/  The  schools  are  open,  as  a  general 
rule,  only  to  those  able  and  fitted  to  be  educated, 
and  the  mentally  and  physically  disqualified  are 
often  rejected.  When  a  child  has  completed  the 
prescribed  number  of  years  of  attendance,  he  can 
be  provided  for  no  longer,  and  at  vacation  time 
in  nearly  all  schools  he  must  depart.  The  schools, 
as  we  are  to  see,  have  become  free  to  all,  while 
compulsory  education  laws  have  also  been  made 
to  apply.  Hence  if  schools  for  the  deaf  are  edu- 
cational, they  can  be  regarded  as  charitable  only 
to  the  extent  that  all  schools  are  so  considered; 
they  should  not  be  looked  upon  in  a  different 
light,  and  the  public  should  be  as  fully  alive  to 
their  claims.^ 

*In  Massachusetts  appropriations  were  once  "for  benefici- 
aries in  asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  ",  but  now  they  are 
"for  the  education  of  deaf  pupils  in  schools  designated  by 
law  ". 

'  In  a  legal  sense,  nearly  all  educational  institutions  can 
be  called  charitable,  especially  if  they  are  private  affairs,  and 
gifts  for  such  purposes  are  held  in  the  law  as  for  charitable 
purposes.  See  4  Wheaton,  518;  2  How.  (U.  S.),  227;  14  How., 
277;  44  Mo.,  570;  25  O.  St.,  229.  Not  many  cases  have  arisen 
in  regard  to  the  status  of  institutions  for  the  deaf.  In  1900 
the  Columbia  Institution  was  held  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Attorney-General  to  be  under  the  department  of  charities,  but 
Congress  the  next  year  declared  it  to  be  educational.  See 
Annals,  xlvi.,  1901,  p.  345.  In  Colorado  an  opinion  was  ren- 
dered that  the  school  was  educational  alone,  and  not  subject  to 
the  civil  service  rules,  and  this  was  later  ratified  in  the  con- 
stitution and  by  the  legislature.  Some  of  the  courts  have 
been  inclined  to  view  the  institutions  as  charitable.  In  Ne- 
braska the  school  for  the  deaf  was  at  first  considered  an  asy- 
lum and  in  the  same  class  with  almshouses,  rather  than  edu- 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  253 

Aeguments  foe  the  Connection  with  the  Boaeds 
OF  Chaeities 

Hitherto  we  have  been  discussing  the  theory 
in  regard  to  the  proper  place  in  which  the  institu- 
tions are  to  be  held,  but  we  are  now  to  see  what 
are  the  actual  grounds  upon  which  the  connection 
with  the  state  board  of  charities  is  to  be  justified. 
Much  might  be  said  of  the  practical  workings  of 
schools  in  connection  with  such  boards,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  the  schools  get  the  substance  at  least 
in  the  way  of  beneficial  treatment.  By  one  super- 
intendant  it  has  been  stated  thus :  "In  theory 
it  is  all  wrong,  but  in  practice  it  could  not  be 
improved  upon."  Where  the  boards  are  com- 
posed of  capable,  broad-minded,  sympathetic 
men,  the  needs  of  the  schools  can  be  satisfactorily 
looked  into,  and  their  experience  with  other  in- 
stitutions, where  the  problems  are  akin  in  the  way 
of  housing  a  large  number  of  people,  can  be 
utilized  to  great  advantage,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  sanitary,  hospital  and  other  arrange- 
ments.^ Such  boards  may  secure  supplies  on 
more  favorable  terms,  may  systematize  all  the  in- 

cational.  6  Neb.,  286.  See  also  43  Neb.,  184.  In  New  York  the 
provision  of  the  law  allowing  the  State  Board  of  Charities  to 
inspect  the  Institution  for  the  Blind  was  attacked,  and  it  was 
held  that,  though  the  institution  was  partly  educational  and 
was  visited  by  the  department  of  education,  yet  the  word 
charity  was  to  be  taken  in  its  usual  meaning,  and  If  the 
Institution  as  a  private  body  educated,  clothed  and  maintained 
Indigent  pupils,  it  was  charitable.  154  New  York,  14  (1897). 
^See  Report  of  Illinois  Board  of  Charities,  1872,  pp.  ISflf.. 
32fe.  »  >  I'p  , 


254  THE  DEAF 

stitutions,  may  properly  apportion  the  appropria- 
tions to  be  asked  of  the  legislature,  may  exercise 
a  wider  supervision,  and  may  correlate  all  the 
means  of  the  state  for  the  maintenance  of  certain 
classes  of  its  population.  These  boards  may  also 
have  pecuhar  opportunities  for  coming  across 
poor  and  neglected  children  and  of  getting  them 
in  the  schools.  Lastly,  and  most  important  of  all, 
even  though  the  institutions  are  educational, 
there  is  much  also  to  be  considered  besides  educa- 
tion alone,  for  a  home  and  board  are  furnished 
during  the  school  year,  and  usually  transporta- 
tion and  clothing  as  well  to  those  in  need  of 
them.^ 

By  the  boards  of  charity  themselves  the  in- 
stitutions are  not  necessarily  regarded  as  chari- 
table.^ Many  of  them  hold  the  institutions  to 
be  educational,  despite  the  charity  connection, 

*In  a  few  cases  a  home  during  vacation  is  afforded  to  the 
indigent  or  unprotected. 

"In  order  to  discover  how  these  institutions  are  regarded  by 
the  departments  of  charities,  letters  of  inquiry  were  sent  by 
the  writer  to  all  the  states  of  the  Union.  Replies  were  re- 
ceived in  45  out  of  49  cases,  coming  from  boards  of  charities, 
boards  of  control,  or  in  their  absence  from  commissioners  of 
education  or  other  state  officials, — and  in  a  few  cases  from 
individuals  or  societies  to  whom  the  communication  was 
turned  over.  In  the  answers,  the  institutions  were  called 
charitable  by  6,  educational  by  13,  both  charitable  and  educa- 
tional by  12,  while  by  14  the  question  was  not  specifically  an- 
swered. In  some  instances,  these  replies  were  only  private 
opinions,  but  they  represent  none  the  less  the  views  of  those 
most  in  touch  with  the  charity  activities  of  the  states.  In  a 
few  cases  the  replies  were  at  variance  with  what  has  been 
accepted  regarding  certain  states.  It  was  also  found  that 
boards  of  control  do  not  necessarily  consider  the  institutions 
as  charitable. 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  255 

and  few  are  unwilling  to  give  recognition  to  their 
educational  features.  In  none  is  there  a  desire 
to  injure  or  stigmatize  the  deaf.  The  aim  is  to 
consider  the  matter  in  its  practical  bearings,  and 
the  question  is  held  to  be  largely  one  of  classifica- 
tion and  administration.  With  all  the  fact 
weighs  that  board,  lodging,  etc.,  are  given  en- 
tirely free.^  The  clearest  and  fullest  presenta- 
tion of  the  point  of  view  of  the  charity  boards  is 
given  in  the  following  extract  from  a  letter  by 
one  board:  ^ 


The  institutions  are  doubtless  both  educational  and 
charitable,  or  at  least  ought  to  be,  using  these  words 
in  their  ordinary  application.  It  is  not  a  question  of 
merit  or  demerit  on  the  part  of  the  unfortunates  or 
their  families.  It  is  not  a  question  whether  they  are 
entitled  to  an  education  as  much  as  normal  children. 
So  far  as  there  is  any  real  issue,  it  is  one  of  classification 
for  purposes  of  administration.  The  question  seems  to 
be  whether  the  institutions  that  care  for  the  above  men- 
tioned classes  can  best  be  administered  under  the  depart- 
ment of  charities  that  has  charge  of  public  institutions, 
or  the  department  of  education  that  usually  has  to  do 
with  institutions  that  furnish  education  only  in  the 
limited  technical  sense,  where  pupils  attend  school  a  few 
hours  a  day,  but  are  not  boarded  at  the  institutions. 
Because  an  institution  is  an  educational  institution,  I 


*  By  one  board,  while  such  schools  are  admitted  to  be  partly 
educational,  they  are  held  "charitable  in  that  they  afford  a 
home  for  certain  defective  persons  during  the  time  of  their 
dependence".  By  one  board  the  pupils  are  called  "charity 
patients  ". 

'The  District  of  Columbia. 


^56  THE  DEAF 

think  it  may  be  none  the  less  a  charitable  institution. 
For  example,  it  would  hardly  be  denied  that  an  orphan 
asylum  is  a  charitable  institution ;  yet  an  orphan  asylum 
that  was  not  an  educational  institution  would  be  de- 
plorable. In  the  state  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  the 
blind,  throughout  the  country,  the  educational  side  is 

very  properly  emphasized These  inmates 

would  properly  be  classed  as  public  dependents  as  they 
usually  have  been  ....  The  whole  trouble  seems  to 
arise  from  a  feeling  of  aversion  to  the  word  "  charity  ", 

and  probably  the  word  has  been  degraded 

To  refer  to  the  institutions  under  consideration  as 
"  educational  institutions  ",  without  any  qualification, 
would  not  be  in  the  interest  of  clearness  of  thought,  and 
would  either  lead  to  confusion  or  to  some  qualifying 
phrases,  because  the  deaf  and  the  blind  are  certainly 
different  enough  from  the  normal  child  to  be  considered, 
for  many  purposes,  in  a  separate  class,  and  the  institu- 
tions which  educate  and  support  them,  it  would  seem 
to  me,  need  some  term  by  which  they  can  be  designated, 
which  would  distinguish  them  from  the  educational 
institutions  designed  for  the  normal  child. 

Aeguments  in  Opposition  to  the  Connection 

Yet  over  against  all  the  arguments  for  the 
connection  with  the  boards  of  charities  the  voice 
of  the  educators  of  the  deaf  is  in  unison  that  the 
connection  of  the  schools  be  completely  severed 
with    whatever    is    of    charitable    signification.^ 

^Many  of  the  schools  in  their  reports  take  pains  to  dis- 
claim any  but  a  strictly  educational  character.  Of  the  Michi- 
gan school  it  is  expressly  stated  that  it  is  "  not  an  asylum,  re- 
formatory or  hospital " ;  of  the  Colorado  that  it  is  "  not  an 
•  asylum '  or  '  home '  for  the  afflicted ;  it  is  not  a  hospital  for 
the  care  and  treatment  of  the  eyes  and  ears;  and  it  is  not  a 
place  for  the  detention  and  care  of  imbeciles  " ;  of  the  Illinois 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  257 

This  feeling  cannot  all  be  ascribed  to  the  preju- 
dice regarding  the  words  employed.  In  the  dis- 
solving of  the  charity  connection  an  issue  not  to 
be  disregarded  is  the  moral  effect  on  the  public. 
A  right  conception  is  to  be  obtained  respecting 
the  education  of  the  deaf,  and  while  in  the  schools 
and  in  after  life  they  are  entitled  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  true  character  of  this  education  and  of 
their  status  in  the  community.  If  the  deaf  after 
they  have  left  the  schools  have  shown  that  they 
are  capable  of  wrestling  unaided  with  the  diffi- 
culties of  life,  and  are  really  not  objects  of  charity 
at  all,  then  they  should  be  spared  all  discrim- 
inating associations.  Indeed,  as  our  new  view 
of  charity  is  the  making  of  men  capable  of  stand- 
ing alone,  and  economic  units  of  gain  in  society, 
so  the  deaf  should  not  be  considered  as  a  distinct 
or  dependent  class,  when  by  the  use  of  certain 
expressions  this  is  done ;  and  we  should  hold  that 
if  their  work  in  the  world  has  justified  them,  then 
no  barriers  should  be  raised  which  their  fellows 
in  society  do  not  have  to  meet,  and  that  their  edu- 
cation should  be  offered  to  them  without  dis- 
crimination or  stigma. 

that  it  is  "  not  a  reformatory,  poor  house,  hospital  or  asylum  " ; 
of  the  Indiana  that  it  is  "  not  an  asylum,  place  of  refuge,  re- 
form school,  almshouse,  children's  home  or  hospital " ;  of  the 
Georgia  that  it  is  "  in  no  sense  an  asylum  ....  or  charitable 
institution  " ;  and  of  the  Mississippi  that  it  is  "  in  no  sense  an 
asylum  ....  a  home  ....  [nor  a  place]  for  medical  treat- 
ment." See  also  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Public  Lands  and 
Buildings  of  Nebraska,  1896,  p.  356;  Education  Department  of 
New  York,  1912,  p.  81. 


258  THE  DEAF 

The  benefits  derived  from  the  relation  with 
the  board  of  charities  may  be  more  than  offset 
by  the  connection  with  educational  agencies, 
where  the  school  is  recognized  as  part  of  the 
state's  educational  system.  In  respect  to  the 
providing  of  maintenance  for  the  pupils,  this  can 
be  regarded  as  but  an  incidence,  when  any  other 
plan  would  be  impracticable.  The  main,  over- 
shadowing purpose  in  the  work  of  the  institu- 
tions is  education,  and  what  are  supplied  beyond 
are  only  to  render  this  the  more  effective.  But 
after  all  this  is  said,  the  opponents  of  the  charity 
connection  insist  that  the  burden  of  proof  is  upon 
those  who  advocate  the  connection.  Why,  they 
ask,  should  the  deaf  children  of  the  state  who  are 
as  capable  of  being  educated  as  others  be  con- 
sidered objects  of  the  state's  charity?  Why  any 
more  than  other  children? 

The  feeling  in  the  matter  may  be  indicated  by 
two  declarations  on  the  subject,  one  by  the  edu- 
cators of  the  deaf,  and  the  other  by  the  deaf  them- 
selves. The  first  is  in  the  form  of  a  resolution 
adopted  by  the  Convention  of  American  In- 
structors :  ^ 

*  Proceedings,  xvil.,  1905,  p.  168.  See  also  ihid.,  xv.,  1898,  p. 
216;  Annals,  Iv.,  1910,  p.  133.  The  schools  are  also  said  to  be 
"maintained  solely  for  the  instruction  of  a  large  and  inter- 
esting class  of  children  who,  by  reason  of  a  physical  infirmity, 
the  loss  of  hearing,  are  denied  instruction  in  the  public 
schools  ".  Dr.  A.  L.  E.  Crouter,  Proceedings  of  National  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Corrections,  1906,  p.  249.  See  also 
Report  of  Kentucky  School,  1909,  p.  17. 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  259 

Rosolvedy  that  the  deaf  youth  of  our  land  unques- 
tionably deserve,  and  are  lawfully  entitled  to,  the  same 
educational  care  and  aid  as  their  more  fortunate 
brothers  and  sisters ;  and  that  this  education,  the  con- 
stitutional duty  of  the  state,  should  be  accorded  them  as 
a  matter  of  right,  not  of  charity,  standing  in  the  law, 
as  it  is  in  fact,  a  part  of  the  common  school  system. 

The  second  is  a  resolution  adopted  by  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  the  Deaf:  ^ 

Whereas,  the  privilege  of  an  education  is  the  birth- 
right of  every  American  child  .  .  .  . ;  and 

Whereas,  the  deaf  child  ....  has  the  same  inalien- 
able right  to  the  same  education  as  his  more  fortunate 
hearing  brother ;  and 

Whereas,  ....  the  fmodern]  movement  .... 
fis]  giving  schools  for  the  deaf  their  proper  place  as 
part  of  the  public  school  system  of  the  country;  and 

Whereas, eighty-one  per  cent  [of  the  deaf 

are]  gainfully  employed  of  those  who  have  had  school- 
ing, thus  indicating  the  value  of  education ; 

therefore  be  it 

Resolved,  ....  that  education  of  the  deaf  on  the 
part  of  the  state  is  simply  fulfillment  of  its  duty  as  a 
matter  of  right  and  justice,  not  sympathetic  charity 

and  benevolence  to  the  deaf; that  schools  for 

the  deaf  should  not  be  known  and  regarded,  nor  classi- 
fied, as  benevolent  or  charitable  institutions,  .... 
[but]  as  strictly  educational  institutions,  a  part  of  the 
common  school  system  ....  [and  not  with  such  as- 
sociations as]  tend  to  foster  a  spirit  of  dependence  in 
the  pupils  and  mark  them  as  the  objects  of  charity  of 
the  state 

*  Proceedings,  viU.,  1907,  p.  40.    See  also  iUd.,  v.,  1896,  p.  47. 


$160  THE  DEAF 

Conclusions  in  Respect  to  the  Charity  Connection 
OF  Schools  foe  the  Deaf 

Certain  inferences  or  conclusions  may  now  be 
reached  regarding  our  question  as  to  whether 
schools  for  the  deaf  may  be  regarded  and  classi- 
fied as  charitable. 

1.  In  America  the  schools  have  been  regarded 
both  as  educational  and  charitable,  but  there  is 
an  increasing  tendency  to  consider  them  as  purely 
educational.  At  present  about  half  of  the  states 
Hold  them  entirely  or  in  the  main  as  educational. 

2.  The  state  boards  or  public  authorities  that 
regard  the  schools  as  charitable  are  in  no  wise 
prompted  by  any  desire  to  discriminate  against 
the  deaf,  or  to  deny  that  they  are  less  capable 
or  worthy  of  education  than  others.  The  ques- 
tion is  held  to  be  mainly  one  of  administration. 

3.  Inasmuch  as  board  and  a  home  are  pro- 
vided in  the  institutions,  and  in  some  cases  cloth- 
ing and  transportation  also,  the  charitable  ele- 
ment is  present,  and  in  point  of  fact  the  schools 
must  be  regarded  ad  hoc  as  charitable. 

4.  This  charitable  feature,  however,  plays  a 
slight  and  almost  negligible  part  in  the  work  of 
the  schools,  being  in  fact  only  incidental,  and  the 
educational  aims  take  precedence  over  all  else. 

5.  Because  of  the  associations  involved  in  the 
charity  connection,  which  are  not  shared  in  by  the 
regular  schools,  and  because  of  the  little  to  sug- 


CHARITY  CONNECTION  261 

gest  charity  in  the  after  lives  of  the  deaf,  the 
schools  for  the  deaf  have  reason  to  protest  against 
the  connection.  As  education  is  the  one  purpose 
of  the  schools,  and  as  their  operations  are  con- 
ducted solely  to  this  end,  they  are  entitled  to  an 
educational  classification. 

6.  That  the  schools  for  the  deaf  should  thus 
be  held  and  treated,  to  the  farthest  possible  ex- 
tent, as  purely  educational,  is  demanded  both  by 
justice  and  by  the  regard  for  the  proper  effect  on 
the  deaf  and  on  the  public. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

PROVISIONS  CONCERNING  ADMISSION  OF 
PUPILS  INTO  SCHOOLS 

Rules  as  to  the  Payment  of  Fees 

HITHERTO  we  have  considered  the  sev- 
eral forms  of  provision  for  the  schools 
for  the  deaf,  and  the  general  treatment 
accorded  them.  We  now  turn  our  examination 
to  the  schools  themselves  in  their  relation  to  the 
pupils  who  enter  them.  Our  first  concern  is  with 
the  provisions  as  to  the  admission  of  pupils  into 
the  schools. 

We  find  that  the  schools,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, are  free  to  all  applicants  mentally  and 
physically  qualified  to  enter. ^  Usually,  when 
started,  the  schools  were  free  to  the  indigent  only, 
though  some,  especially  in  the  West,  were  made 
free  to  all  from  the  very  beginning.  However, 
there  was  httle  attempt  to  observe  closely  these 
limitations,  and  in  time,  as  we  have  seen,  they 

*  Certain  of  the  schools  receive  a  few  pay  pupils,  but  these 
are  usually  from  outside  the  state  or  are  otherwise  exceptionally 
provided  for.  Receipts  from  such  sources  are  inconsiderable, 
and  have  little  effect  on  the  revenues  of  the  schools.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Census  of  Benevolent  Institutions  of  1905,  less  than 
$55,000  came  to  the  schools  in  this  way,  the  greater  amount 
being  for  pupils  of  other  states. 

262 


ADMISSION  OF  PUPILS  263 

were  for  the  most  part  given  up/  At  present 
limitations  of  any  kind  are  found  in  the  smaller 
number  of  states,  and  exist  in  these  in  form  rather 
than  in  practice,  so  that  to-day  laws  or  regula- 
tions of  a  restrictive  nature  may  be  regarded  as 
but  nominal. 

In  all  the  states  the  schools  are  by  statute  free 
to  the  indigent  at  least,  and  in  less  than  a  score 
is  there  a  regulation  short  of  universal  admittance 
prescribed.  By  the  wording  of  the  statute,  either 
directly  or  by  implication,  it  would  seem  to  be 
indicated  that  the  schools,  or,  in  their  absence, 
the  proper  public  authorities,  in  the  following 
states  were  still  empowered  to  demand  a  charge  in 
whole  or  in  part  from  those  able  to  pay:  Ala- 
bama, Arizona,  Delaware,  District  of  Columbia, 
Florida,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  Mississippi,  Mis- 
souri, New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  Mex- 
ico, Nevada,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  and 
Virginia — these  states  at  least  making  reference 
in  some  place  to  the  indigent.^  But  with  or  with- 
out such  reference,  as  we  have  noted,  in  but  few 
instances  is  there  a  charge  to  any,  indigent  or 

*The  statutes  of  some  states,  as  of  Maine  and  Massa- 
chusetts, even  go  so  far  as  distinctly  to  declare  that  no  dis- 
crimination shall  be  made  on  account  of  wealth.  On  this 
subject,  see  Report  of  Clarke  School,  1885,  p.  8. 

^  In  Florida  tuition  at  least  seems  to  be  provided  free  by  the 
statute,  and  in  Georgia  free  admission  seems  to  be  provided 
only  for  the  indigent  blind,  while  education  is  made  free  to 
all  the  deaf.  On  this  subject,  see  American  Journal  of  Soci- 
ology,  iv.,  1898,  p.  51ff. 


264  THE  DEAF 

not.^  In  some  states  proof  of  indigence  is  still 
formally  necessary,^  and  in  others  payment  may 
be  made  if  desired.^ 

Little  effort,  then,  is  made  to  collect  fees  in 
American  schools  for  the  deaf.  The  circum- 
stances of  the  deaf  themselves  are  usually  such 
as  to  demand  for  them  education  without  cost; 
while  at  the  same  time  the  general  American 
feeling  that  education  should  be  a  free  gift  of 
the  state  to  its  youth  would  be  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent attempts  to  secure  payment,  even  if  such 
action  should  be  considered  proper. 

Peovision  fob  Collateeal  Suppoet  of  Pupils 

The  state  thus  supplies  the  means  for  the  edu- 
cation and  maintenance  of  pupils  without  cost  to 
them;  but  to  insure  the  attendance  of  those  who 
by  reason  of  poverty  might  be  prevented  from 

*0n  this  subject  the  superintendent  of  the  Mississippi 
School  addressed  letters  to  heads  of  Southern  schools,  and 
found  only  two — those  in  Texas  and  Mississippi — having  any 
requirement  as  to  payment.  In  Mississippi  there  had  been 
only  two  payments  in  the  course  of  a  considerable  number  of 
years.  In  the  Texas  school  for  the  year  1909  we  find  the  sum 
of  $1,546  collected  as  a  "  reasonable  amount "  for  board, — an 
unusual  item  in  the  receipts  of  a  school. 

^Wherever  a  formal  regulation  is  stated,  we  are  advised 
that  the  schools  are  "free  to  the  indigent",  "free  if  parents 
are  unable  to  pay  ",  "  free  under  certain  circumstances  ",  etc. 
In  a  few  states,  "certificates  of  inability"  have  been  de- 
manded. 

•In  Maine,  for  instance,  the  law  states  that  the  school  is 
free,  "provided,  however,  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall 
be  held  to  prevent  the  voluntary  payment  of  the  whole  or 
part  of  such  sum  by  the  parent  or  the  guardian". 


ADMISSION  OF  PUPILS  265 

availing  themselves  of  its  bounty,  it  assists  even 
further.  Where  no  other  means  are  provided, 
clothing  and  transportation  to  and  from  the 
schools  are  furnished  free  of  expense.  Such 
charges  are  usually  paid  by  the  counties  from 
which  the  pupils  come,  though  a  few  states  under- 
take this  directly.  A  given  sum  may  be  allowed 
for  this  purpose,  or  the  actual  cost  may  be  col- 
lected.^ 

Age  Limits  of  Attendance 

With  most  of  the  schools  the  age  limits  of  at- 
tendance are  fixed,  and  pupils  may  be  admitted 
only  within  the  time  prescribed  by  the  law.  In 
some  the  age  permitted  is  the  common  school  age ; 
in  others  pupils  are  admitted  who  are  of  "  suitable 
age  and  qualifications,"  or  "capacity;"  and  in 
some  cases,  no  limits  being  set  down,  the  matter 
seems  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  author- 
ities.^ 

*Some  states,  notably  Washington,  Minnesota,  Mississippi, 
South  Carolina,  Arkansas,  Utah,  Nebraska,  and  Oklahoma  al- 
low funds  to  pay  the  transportation  of  students  who  enter  the 
college  at  Washington,  and  in  some  cases  an  even  further  al- 
lowance is  made.  In  Minnesota  and  Nebraska,  for  instance, 
the  amount  is  $800  a  year.     See  Annals,  Ivi.,  1911,  p.  180. 

2  Even  where  the  age  period  is  fixed  by  law,  it  is  not  always 
rigidly  adhered  to,  and  considerable  elasticity  may  be  allowed. 
Of  the  Michigan  school  we  are  told  that  the  state  "  wisely 
allows  the  board  of  trustees  the  privilege  of  admitting  those 
[pupils]  who  are  older  or  younger,  if  they  see  fit ".  Report, 
1908,  p.  32.  For  discussion  of  the  age  period,  see  Report  of 
New  York  Institution  for  Improved  Instruction,  1870,  p.  28; 
Ohio  School,  1872,  p.  17;  Clarke  School,  1888,  p.  8;  American 
School,    1893,    p.    32;    Michigan    School,    1894,    p.    22;    New 


266  THE  DEAF 

In  schools  where  the  limits  of  attendance  are 
specified,  the  minimum  age  is  usually  six,  seven 
or  eight,  while  a  few  schools  admit  at  five.  In 
a  few  of  the  day  schools,  and  in  most  of  the  oral 
home  schools,  children  may  be  received  as  early 
as  three,  or  even  two,  to  make  an  early  beginning 
in  the  use  of  speech,  some  of  the  home  schools  be- 
ing designed  expressly  to  receive  children  under 
five,  or  before  the  regular  school  period.  The  age 
limit  for  the  completion  of  the  school  period  is 
often  twenty  or  twenty-one,  while  a  few  schools 
may  keep  pupils  longer,  as  to  twenty-five.  The 
most  frequent  age  period  at  present,  where  age 
limits  are  stated,  is  from  six  to  twenty-one,  but  the 
period  often  begins  and  ends  at  other  ages.^ 

Jersey  School,  1898,  p.  20;  Pennsylvania  Institution,  1901,  p. 
35;  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American  Instructors,  xviii., 
1908,  p.  156;  Association  Review,  v.,  1903,  p.  380. 

*  The  formal  age  period  is  from  6  to  21  in  Colorado,  Florida, 
Idaho,  Maryland,  Montana,  Oklahoma,  South  Dakota,  and 
Washington;  from  7  to  21  in  Kansas,  Michigan,  Nebraska  and 
New  Mexico ;  7  to  25  in  Georgia  and  North  Dakota ;  7  to  20  in 
Wisconsin ;  8  to  20  in  Minnesota ;  8  to  21  in  Indiana ;  8  to  25 
in  West  Virginia;  8  to  26  in  California;  5  to  21  in  Iowa  and 
Maine;  5  to  20  in  Vermont;  and  in  North  Carolina  at  one 
school  6  to  21,  and  at  the  other  8  to  23.  In  Alabama  pupils  be- 
tween the  ages  of  7  and  21  may  remain  10  years,  with  an  ex- 
tension of  4,  but  none  beyond  25.  In  Arkansas  the  limits  are  6 
and  21,  and  the  time  of  residence  may  be  extended  to  13  years. 
In  Texas  they  are  7  and  20,  with  a  residence  of  12  years  per- 
mitted. In  Missouri  they  are  8  and  21,  with  a  residence  of 
12  years.  In  Kentucky  and  Virginia  they  are  the  same,  with 
a  residence  of  10  years.  In  Rhode  Island  they  are  3  and  20, 
with  a  stay  of  10  years,  which  may  be  extended.  In  New 
Jersey  the  limits  are  8  and  21,  and  a  pupil  is  entitled  to  a  stay 
of  8  years,  which  may  be  extended  3,  and  3  more  in  addition. 
In  Louisiana  the  limits  are  8  and  22.  pupils  under  14 
being  allowed  to  stay  10  years;  between  14  and  17,  8;  and 
over    17,    5 — with    an    extension    in    each    case    of  4    years. 


ADMISSION  OF  PUPILS  267 

In  some  cases  pupils  are  allowed  to  remain  a 
certain  number  of  years,  but  none  beyond  a  cer- 
tain limit,  while  in  many  the  period  may  be  ex- 
tended two,  three  or  five  years,  when  it  appears 
that  the  progress  of  the  pupil  justifies  a  more 
protracted  residence.^  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  limits  of  attendance  have  in  general  been 
lowered,  and  have  been  made  to  conform  more 
and  more  with  those  of  the  regular  schools.^ 

In  Delaware  a  pupil  may  stay  5  years,  with  a  further  exten- 
sion of  5.  In  Ohio  the  lower  limit  is  7,  and  none  may  remain 
more  than  13  years.  In  New  York  pupils  may  enter  at  5,  but 
after  12,  the  period  is  5  years,  with  an  extension  of  3,  and  a 
further  one  of  3.  In  Wyoming  pupils  may  enter  at  6;  and  in 
Connecticut  at  6,  with  a  residence  of  12  years  and  an  extension 
of  6.  In  Massachusetts  a  residence  of  10  years  is  permitted, 
which  may  be  extended,  but  here  the  Clarke  School  has  no 
fixed  time,  and  the  Horace  Mann  takes  pupils  over  5.  In  Penn- 
sylvania, though  the  statute  seems  to  have  provided  from  10  to 
20  years  as  the  period,  there  are  no  strict  limits,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Institution  receiving  from  5  to  21,  the  Western  Penn- 
sylvania from  6  to  20,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Oral  none  under 
6,  except  in  special  circumstances,  In  Utah  there  seems  to  be 
only  an  upper  limit  of  30. 

^  It  sometimes  happens  that  there  are  found  a  small  number 
of  deaf  persons  who  are  beyond  the  age  allowed,  but  who  are 
in  need  of  a  certain  amount  of  schooling.  Their  condition  is 
said  to  be  "  due  to  their  environments,  to  merciless  and  ex- 
acting parents,  to  sickness,  and  to  other  causes."  Report  of 
Iowa  School,  1812,  p.  13.  See  also  Report,  1910,  p.  8.  Under 
special  arrangements,  some  of  these  might  be  benefited  no 
little  by  a  few  years  of  instruction.  In  Iowa  such  persons 
may  now  be  received -up  to  the  age  of  thirty-five,  if  the  State 
Board  of  Control  consents. 

^We  have  already  noticed  that  in  the  first  schools  an  early 
age  was  not  insisted  upon,  some  pupils  entering  at  10  or  12, 
while  their  attendance  was  also  of  short  duration.  The 
period  was  often  from  9  to  30.  The  latter  age  has  been  al- 
lowed in  some  states  till  recent  years,  as  in  Texas,  Arkansas 
and  Missouri.  It  may  be  stated  here  that  the  law  as  to  resi- 
dence applies  usually  only  at  the  time  of  entrance,  and  the 
removal  of  the  parent  may  not  always  effect  a  change.  For  a 
case  in  point,  see  4  R.  I.,  p.  587. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

ATTENDANCE  IN  SCHOOLS 

The  Proportion  of  the  Deaf  in  the  Schools 

THE  question  now  arises  as  to  whether  the 
deaf  generally  attend  these  schools  pro- 
vided for  them.  This  inquiry  really  re- 
solves itself  into  two  parts:  how  far  the  deaf  have 
at  some  time  and  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period 
hia-d  recourse  to  the  schools;  and  how  far  they 
may  be  found  to  be  in  attendance  at  a  given  time. 
The  one  has  relation  rather  to  how  widely  the 
schools  are  extending  their  educational  oppor- 
tunities, and  the  other  to  how  effectively  they 
are  accomplishing  their  ends. 

As  to  the  first  consideration,  the  schools  are 
found  to  reach  most  of  the  deaf  children  with  the 
privileges  of  an  education  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent. From  the  returns  of  the  census  ^  we  find 
that  nearly  four-fifths  (78.4  per  cent)  of  the  deaf 
have  attended  school,  over  three-fourths  (77.5 
per  cent)  of  these  having  attended  the  special 
schools.  The  proportion  would  be  greater  still 
but  for  the  number  of  the  deaf  too  young  to  en- 

*  Special  Reports,  1906,  pp.  145,  146,  242.  Of  the  colored 
deaf  less  than  one-half— 1,169  out  of  2,836— had  been  to 
school. 


ATTENDANCE  IN  SCHOOLS  269 

ter  school.  The  proportion  of  the  deaf  of  school 
age  who  have  attended  school  may  likewise  be 
estimated  by  comparing  the  total  number  of  ap- 
proximate school  age  with  the  number  who  were 
reported  to  have  been  in  attendance.  There  were, 
according  to  the  census,  13,905  deaf  children  from 
five  to  twenty  years  of  age.  Of  these,  10,640,  or 
76.5  per  cent,  were  reported  to  have  attended 
school.^  In  1912-1913  the  total  number  in  at- 
tendance was  14,474,  which  probably  means  a 
higher  proportion.  On  the  whole,  then,  it  would 
seem  that,  in  respect  to  the  number  of  deaf  chil- 
dren actually  reached  at  one  time  or  another,  the 
schools  make  a  really  commendable  showing, 
and  one  that  is  becoming  better  from  year  to 
year. 

The  second  matter,  however,  cannot  be  dis- 
posed of  nearly  so  satisfactorily.  It  is  difficult 
to  determine  with  any  approach  to  exactness  the 
respective  proportions  of  the  deaf  in  the  several 
states  of  school  age  who  are  out  of  school.  The 
census  does  not  give  us  definite  information  on 
this  point;  and  though  the  school  authorities 
themselves  are  usually  aware  of  conditions  in 
their  respective   states,   they   seldom  have   the 

^In  1890  the  proportion  of  deaf  children  between  five  and 
twenty  years  found  to  be  in  school  was  only  40  per  cent,  to 
be  accounted  for  in  part  by  the  fact  that  only  those  children 
actually  in  school  at  the  time  that  the  census  was  taken  were 
included.  Census  Reports,  1890.  Report  on  Insane,  Feeble- 
minded, Deaf  and,  Dumb  and  Blind,  1895,  p.  102. 


270  THE  DEAF 

means  of  fully  ascertaining.  But  we  may  learn 
something  of  the  general  situation.  In  the  re- 
ports of  some  of  the  schools  complaint  is  not  in- 
frequently made  as  to  the  number  of  deaf  chil- 
dren out  of  school  who  should  be  in,  and  in  a 
portion  the  number  is  said  to  be  large.^  The  pro- 
portions, furthermore,  found  in  attendance  in  the 
different  states  in  comparison  with  their  total 
population,  or  with  their  total  deaf  population 
under  twenty  years  of  age,  indicate  that  the  at- 
tendance in  some  states  is  far  greater  than  in 
others,  which  means  that  in  the  latter  a  relatively 
smaller  part  are  in  school.^     It  would  appear, 

*  In  the  case  of  the  Alabama  School  it  is  said  that  "  there  are 
many  deaf  children  of  school  age  in  the  state  not  in  school ". 
Report,  1900,  p.  24.  In  the  case  of  the  Kentucky  School  it  is 
stated  that  "  there  are  still  200  [children]  of  school  age  iu 
the  state  who  have  not  received  the  benefit  of  the  school". 
Report,  1903,  p.  13.  See  also  Report,  1S87,  p.  98.  In  Tennessee 
it  is  stated  that  there  are  "  doubtless  quite  a  number  of  deaf 
children  of  whom  we  have  no  knowledge  in  certain  counties  ". 
Report  of  Tennessee  School,  1910,  p.  11.  In  Texas  there  are 
said  ij  be  "300  deaf  children  in  the  state  within  scholastic 
age  who  are  not  in  school ",  this  proportion  possibly  being  50 
per  cent.  Report  of  Texas  School,  1912,  pp.  5,  12.  See  also 
Report  of  Board  of  Charities  of  New  York,  1910,  i.,  p.  151; 
Arkansas  School,  1890,  p.  44;  Western  Pennsylvania  Institu- 
tion, 1888,  p.  19;  1908,  p.  19;  Maryland  School,  1SC3,  p.  G. 

*  It  has  been  fnand  that,  by  comparing  the  number  cf  the  'leaf 
in  school  in  the  several  states  with  the  total  population  of 
1910,  the  best  record  is  26.0  per  100,000  of  population,  which 
belongs  to  \ Wisconsin;  and  if  this  ratio  be  accepted  ri  an  ap- 
proximate star.aard,  the  average  proportion  for  all  the  United 
States  is  only  one-half,  with  a  ratio  of  13.6  per  100,000,  while 
in  a  few  of  the  states  it  is  only  one-third,  the  lowest  ratio  being 
6.1  per  100,000.  If  all  the  states  had  as  high  a  ratio  as  26, 
the  number  in  attendance  would  be  23,913.  The  finding  of  these 
results  is  due  to  Mr.  F.  W.  Booth,  Volta  Review,  xii.,  1911,  p. 
786,     If  we  compare  the  number  of  the  deaf  reported  by  the 


ATTENDANCE  IN  SCHOOLS  ml 

then,  that  the  number  of  the  deaf  out  of  school 
who  are  of  school  age  is  probably  not  negligible  in 
any  of  the  states,  and  that  in  some.it  is  very  con- 
siderable.^ 

The  fact  that  the  schools  do  not  have  their  full 
quota  of  pupils  is  not  all  due  to  the  refusal  of 
deaf  children  to  avail  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunity for  a  schooHng.  It  is  in  good  part  owing 
also  to  the  failure  of  some  of  the  pupils  who  at- 
tend to  remain  a  sufficient  length  of  time.  In  the 
preceding  chapter  we  have  seen  what  are  the 
limits  of  attendance  prescribed  in  the  schools ;  but 
as  a  matter  of  fact  a  large  proportion  of  the 
pupils  do  not  remain  the  full  period  allotted,  and 
in  some  of  the  schools  an  appreciable  number  do 
not  remain  the  better  or  a  substantial  part  of  the 
term.^  As  in  all  schools,  there  is  in  the  passing 
of  the  pupils  from  the  years  of  childhood  an  in- 
creasing tendency  to  leave,  and  with  the  deaf 
this  applies  with  no  less  force ;  ^  so  that  on  no 

census  under  twenty  years  of  age  with  the  number  found  at 
school  in  1912-1913,  the  lowest  proportion  is  seen  to  be  45  per 
cent,  though  only  half  a  dozen  states  have  proportions  under  60. 

^The  proportion  of  children  generally  out  of  school  is  found 
by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  to  average  21.8  per  cent  in  all 
the  states,  ranging  from  7.3  to  44.7  per  cent.  Comparative 
Study  of  Public  School  Systems  in  48  States,  1912. 

^  In  respect  to  the  ages  most  common  in  the  schools  for  the 
deaf,  it  has  been  found  by  Dr.  Harris  Taylor,  of  the  New  York 
Institution  for  Improved  Instruction,  that  of  2,634  pupils  in 
38  schools  for  whom  returns  were  made,  19.8  per  cent  were 
seven  years  of  age;  17.3  per  cent,  eight;  10.9  per  cent,  six; 
10.2  per  cent,  nine;  and  9.6  per  cent,  ten.  Only  1.4  per  cent 
were  over  nineteen.     Yolta  Review,  xiv.,  1912,  p.  177. 

^See  Report  of  Western  New  York  Institution,  1888,  p.  28; 


rt2  THE  DEAF 

small  portion  of  the  pupils  the  work  of  the  schools 
is  not  permitted  to  have  full  effect. 

The  Need  op  Compulsory  Education  Laws  for  the 

Deaf 

It  is  thus  quite  evident,  however  large  the  true 
proportion  of  the  deaf  who  attend  the  school 
may  be,  and  whatever  the  proportion  remaining 
a  satisfactory  period  may  be,  that  in  practically 
every  state  there  are  a  certain  nmnber  of  deaf 
children  not  in  the  schools  who  should  be  there, 
and  that  the  offer  of  the  state  to  provide  an  edu- 
cation for  all  its  deaf  children  is  not  availed  of  as 
it  should  be.^  For  the  existence  of  this  condi- 
tion of  affairs  the  schools  are  not  to  be  held 
responsible.  They  are  usually  doing  all  they  can 
to  get  the  children  in,  and  all  the  deaf  if  they 
will  may  receive  an  education.  The  cause  lies 
further  back:  most  often  in  the  ignorance  or 
short-sightedness  of  the  parent. 

For  it  all  there  is  but  one  remedy — the  enact- 
ment of  a  strong  compulsory  education  law  and 

Kentucky  School,  1889,  p.  14.  In  the  regular  schools  85  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  are  said  to  drop  out  between  the  twelfth 
and  fifteenth  years.  F.  M.  Leavitt,  "  Examples  of  Industrial 
Education ",  1912,  p.  54.  See  also  Report  on  Condition  of 
Women  and  Children  Wage  Earners  in  the  United  States, 
1910,  vol.  7. 

^In  some  cases  it  happens  that  the  school  is  already 
crowded,  but  the  need  is  no  less,  and  it  should  be  the  business 
of  the  state  to  provide  sufficient  accommodations  for  all  those 
who  seek  an  education. 


ATTENDANCE  IN  SCHOOLS  273 

its  uncompromising  enforcement.  No  matter 
how  strenuous  and  diligent  may  be  the  efforts 
to  reach  the  children,^  it  is  only  when  such  a  law 
is  on  the  statute  books  that  the  state's  really  ef- 
fective weapon  is  at  hand  to  secure  attendance.^ 
However  urgent  are  the  needs  of  compulsory 
education  laws  for  children  generally,  there  are 
special  reasons  for  them  with  the  deaf.  The  deaf 
stand  in  particular  need  of  an  education,  and 
without  it  their  condition  is  peculiarly  helpless 
and  pitiable.  Compelling  reason  is  also  found  in 
the  fact  that,  besides  the  ordinary  schooling,  in- 
dustrial training  is  likewise  afforded  to  the  deaf, 
which  is  hardly  possible  elsewhere,  and  which  may 
mean  no  little  towards  success  in  after  life.  Even 
though  it  sometimes  seems  hard  to  take  a  deaf 
child  from  his  home,  and  separate  him  from  his 
parents  for  a  number  of  months  at  a  time,  es- 
pecially if  the  child  is  in  his  tender  years,  the 
greater  necessity  of  the  law  is  but  indicated  if 
such  children  are  to  be  kept  from  growing  up  in 
ignorance.    The  hardship  in  separation  is  rather 

*  Great  credit  is  often  due  to  the  schools  for  their  efforts  to 
get  all  the  children  in.  Of  the  Kentucky  School  it  is  said  that 
"  there  remain  but  few  deaf  children  whom  we  have  not  seen 
personally".     Report,  1907,  p.  14. 

*We  do  not  have  sufficient  data  to  enable  us  to  make  com- 
parison between  the  attendance  in  states  with  a  compulsory 
education  law  and  those  without  it,  though  the  former  have 
In  general  apparently  the  better  record.  In  Michigan  it  is 
stated  that  the  compulsory  education  law  has  brought  in 
many  who  otherwise  would  not  have  come.  Report,  1908, 
p.  14. 


274  THE  DEAF 

apparent  only  and  is  temporary,  while  the  gains 
are  not  to  be  measured. 

Not  only  should  the  deaf  child  be  required  to 
attend  school,  but  for  reasons  equally  strong  it 
should  be  seen  that  he  remains  at  school  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  years,  and  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  each  year.  It  is  a  difficult  matter 
as  it  is  to  secure  full  attendance,  but  too  often 
also  the  temptation  is  at  hand  for  pupils  to  leave 
early  to  take  up  work  on  their  own  account,  or 
because  the  school  routine  seems  irksome;  and 
too  often  is  a  pupil  called  away  to  help  on  the 
farm  or  in  the  shop  by  what  is  sometimes  hardly 
less  than  the  greed  of  the  parent,  or  by  what  is 
sometimes  miscalled  his  poverty.  The  state 
should  allow  nothing  at  all  to  stand  in  the  way  of 
the  child's  best  interests. 

Peesent  Extent  of  Compulsory  Education  Laws 

How  important  are  compulsory  education  laws 
for  the  deaf  is  being  generally  seen,  and  the  de- 
mand has  become  practically  unanimous  for  their 
enactment,  the  feeling  not  being  confined  to  edu- 
cators of  the  deaf  but  shared  in  by  others  in- 
terested in  them.^    Such  laws  have  begun  to  find 

*  See  Proceedings  of  National  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Corrections.  1907,  p.  498;  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Charities 
and  Corrections  of  Oklahoma,  1912,  p.  430;  Proceedings  of 
Convention  of  American  Instructors,  vii..  1870,  p.  137;  x.,  1882, 
p.  164;  xi.,  1886,  p.  34;  Conference  of  Principals,  ii.,  1872,  p. 


ATTENDANCE  IN  SCHOOLS  275 

their  way  upon  the  statute  books,  and  are  now 
being  increasingly  enacted.  Already  practically 
half  of  the  states  have  them,  nearly  all  of  which 
were  enacted  since  1900.  In  other  states  the  mat- 
ter is  also  being  agitated,  with  the  likelihood  that 
provisions  will  be  extended  to  them  in  time. 
States  with  such  laws  now  number  at  least 
twenty- three :  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  In- 
diana, Iowa,  Kansas,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Montana,  Nebraska,  New 
Mexico,  North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio, 
Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island,  South  Da- 
kota, Utah,  Washington,  and  Wisconsin.^ 

With  respect  to  the  provisions  of  these 
statutes,  we  find  that  in  some  cases  the  general 
compulsory  education  law  applies  with  its  age- 

178 ;  National  Association  of  the  Deaf,  iii.,  1889,  p.  52 ;  Annals, 
XV.,  1870,  p.  216;  xliv.,  1899,  p.  152;  liv.,  1909,  p.  356;  Iviii., 
1913,  p.  347;  Association  Review,  v.,  1903,  p.  181;  Report  of 
Clarke  School,  1888,  pp.  8,  19;  North  Carolina  School 
(Raleigh)  1896,  p.  6;  Illinois  School,  1898,  p.  13;  Colorado 
School,  1898,  p.  18;  Indiana  School,  1900,  p.  20;  Oregon 
School,  1901,  p.  9;  Nebraska  School,  1912,  p.  9;  and  current 
reports  of  schools  generally. 

*In  a  certain  number  of  states,  moreover,  as  Connecticut 
and  West  Virginia,  town  and  county  authorities  are  required 
to  make  report  of  the  deaf  at  fixed  times,  and  this  may  some- 
times have  the  effect  of  a  regular  law.  In  addition,  in  some 
states  with  the  full  law,  as  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  North 
Carolina,  it  is  the  duty  of  certain  county  oflScials,  as  super- 
intendents of  education,  assessors,  etc.,  to  send  in  the  names  of 
possible  pupils  to  the  schools.  In  North  Carolina  many 
county  superintendents  of  education  are  said  to  take  an  inter- 
est in  thus  getting  the  children  in.  Report  of  North  Carolina 
School,  1908,  p.  10;  1910,  p.  9.  By  the  secretary  of  the  state 
board  of  charities  of  California,  however,  we  are  advised  that 
the  state  does  not  compel  a  parent  to  send  his  deaf  or  blind 
child  to  an  institution. 


276  THE  DEAF 

periods,  fines,  etc.,  while  in  others  there  are  spe- 
cial enactments  for  the  deaf.  In  most  states  an 
exception  is  made  if  there  is  instruction  at  home, 
or  with  equal  facilities,  and  at  the  same  time  and 
in  the  same  branches.  In  certain  ones  truancy 
officers  are  expressly  designated  to  enforce  the 
law.^  Fines  for  violation  are  placed  at  sums 
varying  from  $5  to  $200.^  The  period  of  at- 
tendance required  may  be  the  school  year,  but 
more  often  a  part,  as  five,  six  or  eight  months ;  ^ 
and  the  term  for  which  attendance  is  required  is 
either  a  designated  number  of  years,  as  five  or 
eight,  or  a  period  between  certain  age  limits,  as 
from  eight  to  sixteen  or  from  seven  to  eighteen, 
etc.* 

*As  in  Kansas,  Maryland,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
Ohio,  and  Oregon. 

'  The  fines  in  some  of  the  states  are  as  follows :  $5  in  Mary- 
land, $5-$20  in  Minnesota,  $5-$25  in  Montana  and  Oregon,  $20 
in  Rhode  Island,  $25  in  Iowa,  $5-$50  in  Wisconsin,  $100  in 
Kansas,  and  $50-$200  in  Washington.  In  Utah  the  offense  is 
a  misdemeanor. 

'Kansas  requires  5  months,  Oklahoma,  Oregon  and  Mon- 
tana 6,  and  Maryland,  North  Dakota  and  Wisconsin  8, 

*  The  number  in  Montana  is  8,  and  in  California  5,  The 
limits  in  Wisconsin  are  6  and  16,  in  North  Carolina  7  and  17, 
in  Indiana  and  Maryland  8  and  16,  in  North  Dakota  7  and 
20,  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  7  and  21,  in  Michigan,  Nebraska 
and  Rhode  Island  7  and  18,  in  Montana,  Ohio,  Oregon  and 
Utah  8  and  18,  in  Minnesota  8  and  20,  and  in  Iowa  12  and  19. 
In  Minnesota  it  is  suggested  that  the  law  apply  to  those  over 
20  as  well.  Report  of  Board  of  Control,  1908,  p.  356;  Report 
of  Minnesota  School,  1909,  p.  23. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  SCHOOLS 

The  Use  of  Signs  as  a  Means  of  Communication 

DEAF  children  cannot  be  educated  as  other 
children,  and  in  the  schools  there  have  to 
be  employed  special  means  of  instruction. 
In  the  present  chapter  it  is  our  purpose  to  con- 
sider these  methods  only  as  they  represent,  in  a 
complete  study  of  the  provision  of  the  state  for 
the  education  of  the  deaf,  the  means  which  have 
been  found  necessary  to  employ  to  attain  this 
end. 

From  the  beginning  of  organized  instruction 
of  the  deaf  in  America  a  system  of  signs  has  been 
in  use  to  a  wide  extent.  At  the  time  when  the 
methods  of  instruction  of  the  deaf  were  intro- 
duced into  the  first  schools,  the  "  sign  language  " 
was  brought  in  as  an  essential  part  from  France, 
where  it  had  largely  been  formulated.  Modified 
somewhat  and  considerably  enlarged — and  in  con- 
junction with  the  manual  alphabet,  of  Spanish 
origin — the  system  has  taken  its  place  as  a  recog- 
nized means  of  education  and  communication  in 
the  great  number  of  the  schools.    The  deaf  them- 

277 


278  THE  DEAF 

selves  after  passing  from  the  doors  of  the  schools 
have  employed  the  sign  language  mainly  in  their 
intercourse  with  one  another,  and  with  most  of 
them  meetings  and  social  affairs  are  conducted 
virtually  entirely  in  this  manner.  Thus  the  sign 
language  has  for  long  been  one  of  the  vehicles — 
usually  the  chief  vehicle — of  communication 
among  the  deaf  and  their  instructors. 

With  the  sign  language  for  practical  use  goes 
the  manual  alphabet,  or  "  finger-spelling,"  by 
which  the  several  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  rep- 
resented on  the  hand,  the  two  together  really  con- 
stituting the  language.^  The  order  of  signs  it- 
self forms  to  an  extent  a  universal  language.  It 
consists  of  gestures,  bodily  movements,  mimic  ac- 
tions, pantomime,  postures — and  to  carry  a  close 
shade  of  meaning,  even  the  shrugging  of 
shoulders,  the  raising  of  eyebrows  and  the  expres- 
sion of  the  face — all  appealing  graphically  to  the 
accustomed  eye.  The  signs  of  which  it  is  made  up 
are  partly  natural,  and  partly  arbitrary  or  con- 

*In  America  the  one-hand  alphabet  is  used  practically  alto- 
gether, which  is  also  the  case  with  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe.  In  England  the  double-hand  is  employed  mainly. 
Finger-spelling,  as  well  as  sign-making,  is  very  old  with  the 
human  race.  The  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans  are  said  to 
have  made  use  of  a  system  of  finger  notation.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  monks  in  their  enforced  silence  often  resorted  to  a  finger 
alphabet.  Dalgarno,  one  of  the  early  English  writers  on  the 
deaf,  had  an  alphabet  in  which  the  letters  were  represented 
by  parts  of  the  hand.  See  J.  C.  Gordon,  "  Practical  Hints  to 
Parents  concerning  the  Preliminary  Training  of  Young  Deaf 
Children",  1886,  p.  34ff. ;  W.  R.  Cullingworth,  "A  Brief  Re- 
view of  the  Manual  Alphabet  for  the  Deaf  ",  1902. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  279 

ventional ;  and  the  whole  system  as  now  practiced 
has  been  codified,  as  it  were,  for  experienced 
users.  By  the  deaf  it  can  be  employed  rapidly 
and  with  ease,  and  is  readily  and  clearly  under- 
stood. Many  of  them  become  such  masters  of 
this  silent  tongue  that  it  may  be  used  with  grace, 
warmth  and  expressiveness.^ 

Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Oral  Movement 

This  system  of  signs,  however,  has  not  been 
looked  upon  with  favor  by  all  parties.  The 
"  sign  language  "  is  said  to  be  a  foreign  language, 
known  and  understood  by  only  a  very  small  part 
of  the  population,  standing  as  a  great  barrier  to 
the  acquisition  of  language  used  by  people  gen- 
erally, and  tending  to  make  the  deaf  of  a  class 
apart  or  "  clannish."  In  its  place  in  the  schools 
would  be  substituted  what  is  known  as  the  "  oral 
method,"  and  speech  and  lip-reading  would  be 
used  as  the  means  of  instruction.  It  has  been 
sought  thus  to  give  all  the  schools  over  to  the 
oral  method,  and  summarily  to  drive  out  the  sign 
language.^ 

*For  a  description  of  the  sign  language,  see  J.  S.  Long, 
"The  Sign  Language:  a  Manual  of  Signs",  1910.  See  also 
American  Journal  of  Science,  viii.,  1824,  p.  348;  Annals,  1., 
1847,  pp.  55,  79;  v.,  1852,  pp.  83,  149;  vii.,  1855,  p.  197;  xvi., 
1871,  p.  221 ;  xviii.,  1873,  p.  1 ;  xxxii.,  1887,  p.  141 ;  Ivii.,  1911, 
p.  46;  Proceedings  of  American  Instructors,  ii.,  1851,  p.  193; 
iv.,  1857,  p.  133 ;  vii.,  1870,  p.  133 ;  xii.,  1890,  pp.  100,  171 ;  Re- 
port of  New  York  Institution,  1838,  p.  14 ;  1840,  p.  17 ;  Ameri- 
can School,  1856,  p.  18;  California  School,  1875,  p.  24.  See 
also  "  The  Deaf :  by  their  Fruits,"  by  the  New  York  Institution, 
1912. 

2  Against  the  arguments  to  abolish  the  sign  language,  it  Is 


280  THE  DEAF 

Though  the  system  of  signs  has  been  used  in 
America  as  the  prevailing  method  from  the  begin- 
ning, it  cannot  be  said  that  speech-teaching  had 
not  been  employed  at  all  in  the  early  days.  Sev- 
eral schools  had  started  out  as  oral  schools/  and 
in  others  speech  had  been  employed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.^  But  in  none  of  the  schools  had 
the  oral  method  been  retained  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  others. 

In  time,  however,  attempts  were  made  to  se- 
cure the  adoption  of  a  pure  oral  system.  Atten- 
tion was  called  especially  to  Germany,  which  had 
long  been  known  as  the  home  of  this  method,  and 

claimed  that  signs  are  free,  and  are  as  natural  to  the  deaf  as 
spoken  words  to  the  hearing;  that  with  certain  of  the  deaf, 
especially  the  congenitally  deaf,  they  are  all  but  indispen- 
sable; that  they  cause  mental  stimulation  as  cannot  other- 
wise be  done;  that  the  acquisition  of  speech  requires  a  great 
amount  of  time,  which  is  often  needed  for  other  things;  that 
the  voices  of  many  of  the  deaf  are  disagreeable  and  attract 
notice;  that  communication  readily  and  with  pleasure  among 
the  deaf  by  speech  and  speech-reading  cannot  be  accomplished 
to  any  wide  extent;  that  only  with  the  gifted  few,  and  not 
with  the  general  body  of  the  deaf,  can  such  proficiency  in  the 
use  of  speech  and  speech-reading  be  attained  as  to  cause  them 
to  be  "  restored  to  society  ",  in  that  they  can  with  ease  and 
with  any  considerable  degree  of  satisfaction  carry  on  inter- 
course with  the  hearing;  and  that,  finally,  the  great  majority 
of  the  deaf  vigorously  demand  the  retention  of  the  sign  lan- 
guage. 

*The  New  York  Institution,  by  a  resolution  adopted  at  the 
first  meeting  of  its  board  of  directors  in  1818,  decided  for  the 
employment  of  articulation  teaching,  which  policy  was  con- 
tinued for  some  ten  years.  Report,  1908,  p.  30 ;  E.  H.  Currier, 
"History  of  Articulation  Teaching  in  the  New  York  Institu- 
tion", 1894  (Proceedings  of  American  Association  to  Promote 
the  Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  iv.,  sec.  12)  ;  American 
Journal  of  Education,  iii.,  1828,  p.  397. 

'  In  addition,  there  have  always  been  sporadic  instances  of 
private  instruction  in  speech,  as  by  one's  family  or  friends. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  281 

it  was  sought  to  introduce  it  into  America.^  In 
1843  Horace  Mann  and  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe 
visited  that  country,  and  on  their  return  reported 
in  favor  of  the  oral  method,  though  no  change 
was  then  brought  about.^ 

A  few  years  later  the  matter  was  further  agi- 
tated, and  in  1864  an  effort  was  made  to  have  an 
oral  school  incorporated  in  Massachusetts,  but 
without  success.  A  small  oral  school  was  then 
started  at  Chelmesford  in  1866,  which  after  a 
short  time  was  removed  to  Northampton,  hav- 
ing been  very  liberally  endowed,  and  becoming 
known  as  the  Clarke  School.  In  1867  the  leg- 
islature decided  to  incorporate  this,  and  to  allow 
some  of  the  state  pupils  to  be  sent  to  it. 

In  the  meantime — in  fact,  seven  months  prior 
to  the  actual  establishment  of  the  Clarke  School — 
a  school  which  had  resulted  from  a  private  class 
had  been  started  in  New  York  City,  known  as 
the  New  York  Institution  for  the  Improved  In- 
struction of  Deaf -Mutes.  This  was  under  a  for- 
mer Austrian  teacher,  and  its  stated  purpose  was 
to  use  the  oral  method  as  in  Germany.     Two 

*It  is  also  claimed  that  it  was  by  accident  that  the  sign 
method  came  into  vogue  in  America,  Gallaudet  in  his  trip  to 
Europe  having  found  the  London  and  Edinburgh  schools  closed 
to  him,  and  having  for  this  reason  been  compelled  to  turn  to 
France,  where  the  sign  method  was  in  use. 

^It  is  interesting  to  note  that  after  Mann  and  Howe  had 
made  their  report,  the  American  School  at  Hartford  and  the 
New  York  Institution  sent  special  representatives  to  Europe 
to  investigate,  these  advising  little  change  on  the  whole.  See 
Report  of  American  School,  1845,  p.  25;  New  York  Institution, 
1844,  p.  62;  1851,  p.  83. 


282  THE  DEAF 

years  later  the  school  board  of  Boston,  having 
made  a  canvass  of  the  deaf  children  of  the  city, 
resolved  to  establish  a  day  school,  which  was  to  be 
a  pure  oral  one,  and  which  not  long  after  was 
called  the  Horace  Mann  School.  These  three 
schools  were  thus  the  pioneers  in  the  present  oral 
movement.^ 

The  oral  method  has  gained  ground  steadily 
since  these  times.  It  is  now  used  exclusively  in 
twelve  of  the  institutions,  while  it  has  always  re- 
mained the  prevailing  method  in  the  day  schools.^ 

» See  "  Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann  ",  1891,  iiL,  p.  245 ; 
"Life  and  Journals  of  Samuel  G.  Howe",  1909,  p.  169;  Re- 
port of  Board  of  Charities  of  Massachusetts,  1867,  p.  Ixxii. ; 
1868,  p.  Ix. ;  Report  of  Special  Joint  Committee  of  the  Legis- 
lature on  Education  of  Deaf -Mutes,  Massachusetts,  1867; 
North  American  Review,  lix.,  1844,  p.  329;  civ.,  1867,  p.  528; 
American  Review,  iii,  1846,  p.  497;  Common  School  Journal 
(Boston),  vi.,  1844,  p.  65;  Nation,  iv.,  1867,  pp.  249,  339;  Re- 
port of  New  York  Institution  for  Improved  Instruction,  1868, 
p.  5 ;  1870,  p.  10 ;  American  School,  1849,  p.  33 ;  1866,  p.  18 ;  1867, 
p.  29;  1868,  p.  16;  Clarke  School,  1875,  p.  5;  Addresses  at  25th 
Anniversary  of  Clarke  School,  1892;  Report  of  Committee  of 
School  for  Deaf-Mutes  (Horace  Mann),  1873,  p.  3;  1891,  p.  8; 
Annals,  xxi.,  1876,  p.  178;  Lend  a  Hand,  xiii.,  1894,  p.  346; 
International  Review,  xi.,  1881,  p.  503 ;  G.  G.  Hubbard,  "  Edu- 
cation of  Deaf  Mutes",  1867,  and  "Rise  of  Oral  Method"  (in 
coUected  writings,  1898)  ;  A.  G.  Bell,  "The  Mystic  Oral  School: 
Argument  in  its  Favor  ",  1897,  and  "  Fallacies  concerning  the 
Deaf",  1883;  Boston  Parents'  Education  Association,  "  OfPer- 
ing  in  behalf  of  the  Deaf",  1903;  Fred  Deland,  "Dumb  No 
Longer:  the  Romance  of  the  Telephone",  1903;  Educational 
Review,  xiL,  1896,  p.  236;  Century  Magazine,  xxxi.,  1897,  p. 
331;  American  Educational  Review,  xxxi.,  1910,  pp.  219,  281, 
415;  Proceedings  of  American  Association  to  Promote  the 
Teaching  of  Speech  to  the  Deaf,  i.,  1891,  p.  89 ;  Volta  Review, 
xiv.,  1912,  p.  579  (Proceedings  of  same)  ;  Evidence  before 
Royal  Commission  on  the  Deaf,  etc.,  1892,  i.,  p.  6;  ii.,  p.  3; 
iii.,  p.  208. 

'  In  many  of  the  day  school  laws  the  use  of  the  oral  method 
is  required,  which  is  also  partly  the  case  in  several  state  insti- 
tutions. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


A  great  extension  is  also  found  in  the  institu- 
tions employing  what  is  called  the  "  combined 
system,"  and  in  them  more  and  more  attention 
is  given  to  the  teaching  of  speech. 

The  growth  in  the  number  of  speech-taught 
pupils  may  be  indicated  in  the  following  table, 
showing  the  number  and  percentage  of  those 
taught  speech  in  different  years  from  1884,  the 
year  we  first  have  record ;  of  those  taught  wholly 
or  chiefly  by  the  oral  method  since  1892;  and  also 
of  those  taught  wholly  or  chiefly  by  the  auricular 
method  since  1893.^ 


NUMBER   OF  THE   DEAF    TAUGHT    SPEECH,     NUMBER     TAUGHT 

WHOLLY   OR   CHIEFLY   BY   ORAL   METHOD,   AND    NUMBER 

TAUGHT    WHOLLY    OR    CHIEFLY    BY    AURICULAR 

METHOD.  IN  DIFFERENT  YEARS 


Number 

Number 

Total 

Taught 

Taught 

Number 

Number 

Wholly 

Wholly 

Year 

OF 

Taught 

Per 

OR 

Per 

OR 

Per 

Pupils 

Speech 

CENT 

Chiefly 
BY  Oral 
Method 

cent 

Chiefly 
BY  Auric- 
ular 
Method 

cent 

1884 

7,482 

2,041 

27.2 

1890 

8,901 

3,682 

41.3 

1892 

7,940 

3,924 

49.4 

1,581 

19.9 

1893 

8,304 

4,485 

54.0 

2,056 

24.7 

80 

0.9 

1895 

9,252 

5,084 

54.9 

2,570 

27.7 

149 

1.6 

1900 

10,608 

6,887 

63.0 

4,538 

42.8 

108 

1.0 

1905 

11,344 

7,700 

67.8 

5,733 

50.5 

149 

1.3 

1910 

12,332 

8,868 

71.9 

7,562 

61.3 

134 

1.1 

1913 

13,459 

10,138 

75.3 

1 

8,791 

65.3 

135 

1.1 

*  These  statistics  are  taken  from  the  Special  Reports  of  the 
Census  Office,  1906,  p.  86,  and  the  January  issues  of  the  An- 
nuls. See  also  Volta  Review,  xv.,  1913,  p.  90;  Proceedings  of 
American  Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching  of  Speech  to 
the  Deaf  (Condition  of  Articulation  Teaching  in  American  In- 
stitutions), ii.,  1892;  Report  of  Committee  of  Horace  Mann 
School,  Massachusetts,  1891,  p.  8flf.;  1895  (Proceedings  of  25th 
Anniversary). 


284.  THE  DEAF 

It  thus  appears  that  in  a  little  over  a  quarter 
of  a  century  the  proportion  of  pupils  in  the 
schools  taught  speech  has  nearly  trebled ;  and  that 
in  a  score  of  years  the  proportion  taught  chiefly 
or  wholly  by  the  oral  method  has  more  than 
trebled.  The  proportion  of  the  pupils  taught 
wholly  or  chiefly  by  the  auricular  method  never 
rises  above  two  per  cent. 

It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  these  figures 
are  not  to  be  taken  as  meaning  that  all  the  pupils 
thus  enumerated  have  become  proficient  in  the 
employment  of  speech,  or  have  become  able  to 
speak  clearly  and  intelligibly,  and  well  enough 
for  general  practical  use.  It  would  be  nearest 
the  truth  to  say  that  they  are  "  taught  articula- 
tion," or  that  they  are  instructed  by  the  use  of 
speech  and  speech-reading.  Oftentimes  the 
greatest  success  lies  in  the  preservation  in  fair 
shape  of  the  speech  of  those  who  have  once  had  it. 
The  speech  acquired  by  the  deaf  is  of  varying 
degrees,  as  we  have  seen;  but  in  some  it  may  be 
such  as  to  be  of  distinct  service,  as  well  as  the 
lip-reading  which  may  be  said  to  go  with  it.^ 

Present  Methods  of  Instruction 

The  methods  of  instruction  at  present  em- 
ployed in  American  schools   for  the  deaf  are 

*The  greatest  usefulness  of  this  speech  is  often  found  in 
one's  own  family  circle,  or  with  immediate  friends. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  285 

known  as  the  manual,  the  manual  alphabet,  the 
oral,  tlie  auricular  and  the  combined.  They  are 
thus  described  in  the  Annals:  ^ 

I.  The  Manual  Method. — Signs,  the  manual  al- 
phabet, and  writing  are  the  chief  means  used  in  the 
instruction  of  the  pupils,  and  the  principal  objects 
aimed  at  are  mental  development  and  facility  in  the 
comprehension  and  use  of  written  language.  The  de- 
gree of  relative  importance  given  to  these  three  means 
varies  in  different  schools ;  but  it  is  a  difference  only  in 
degree,  and  the  end  aimed  at  is  the  same  in  all. 

II.  The  Manual.  Alphabet  Method. — ^The  manual 
alphabet  and  writing  are  the  chief  means  used  in  the 
instruction  of  the  pupils,  and  the  principal  objects 
aimed  at  are  mental  development  and  facility  in  the 
comprehension  and  use  of  written  language.  Speech  and 
speech-reading  are  taught  to  all  of  the  pupils  in  the 
school  (the  Western  New  York  Institution)  recorded  as 
following  this  method. 

III.  The  Oral  Method. — Speech  and  speech-read- 
ing, together  with  writing,  are  made  the  chief  means 
of  instruction,  and  facility  in  speech  and  speech-read- 
ing, as  well  as  mental  development  and  written  language, 
is  aimed  at.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  different  schools 
in  the  extent  to  which  the  use  of  natural  signs  is  al- 
lowed in  the  early  part  of  the  course,  and  also  in  the 
prominence  given  to  writing  as  an  auxiliary  to  speech 
and ,  speech-reading  in  the  course  of  instruction ;  but 
they  are  differences  only  in  degree,  and  the  end  aimed 
at  is  the  same  in  all. 

IV.  The  Auricular  Method. — The  hearing  of 
semi-deaf  pupils  is  utilized  and  developed  to  the  greatest 
possible  extent,  and  with  or  without  the  aid  of  artificial 
appliances,  their  education  is  carried  on  chiefly  through 

»Jan.,  1914,  Ux.,  p.  41. 


286  THE  DEAF 

the  use  of  speech  and  hearing,  together  with  writing. 
The  aim  of  the  method  is  to  graduate  its  pupils  as  hard- 
of-hearing  speaking  people,  instead  of  deaf-mutes. 

V.  The  Combined  System. — Speech  and  speech- 
reading  are  regarded  as  very  important,  but  mental  de- 
velopment and  the  acquisition  of  language  are  regarded 
as  still  more  important.  It  is  believed  that  in  nmny 
cases  mental  development  and  the  acquisition  of  lan- 
guage can  best  be  promoted  by  the  Manual  or  Manual 
Alphabet  Method,  and  so  far  as  circumstances  permit, 
such  method  is  chosen  for  each  pupil  as  seems  best 
adapted  for  his  individual  case.  Speech  and  speech- 
reading  are  taught  where  the  measure  of  success  seems 
likely  to  justify  the  labor  expended,  and  in  most  of  the 
schools  some  of  the  pupils  are  taught  wholly  or  chiefly 
by  the  Oral  Method  or  the  Auricular  Method.^ 

Of  these  methods  the  oral  and  the  combined 
are  practically  the  only  ones  found.  The  auric- 
ular is  employed  only  in  connection  with  certain 
pupils  in  some  of  the  schools;  while  the  manual 
method  is  found  in  but  two  schools,  and  the  man- 
ual alphabet  in  but  one.  In  the  institutions  the 
combined  is  by  far  the  preponderating  system, 
being  employed  in  all  but  fifteen  of  the  sixty- 
five;  while  the  oral  is  employed  in  twelve.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  oral  method  is  used  in  the  day 
schools  almost  altogether,  there  being  but  two 
of  the  sixty-five  schools  employing  the  combined 

*The  choice  of  methods  for  pupils  may  often  depend  on 
their  classification,  as  noted  before,  into  deaf-mutes,  that  is, 
those  who  have  never  been  able  to  hear;  semi-mutes,  those 
who  have  been  able  to  hear  and  speak,  and  retain  their  speech 
to  some  extent;  and  semi-deaf,  those  able  to  hear  a  little. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  287 

system.  In  the  twenty-one  denominational  and 
private  schools  the  oral  method  predominates, 
fifteen  employing  the  oral  or  the  oral  and  am*ic- 
ular,  and  six  the  combined.  In  such  schools,  the 
denominational  more  often  employ  the  combined 
method,  while  the  strictly  private  are  oral. 

In  respect  to  the  number  of  pupils  in  the 
schools  using  the  two  chief  methods,  we  find  that 
83.7  per  cent  of  those  in  institutions  are  in  in- 
stitutions employing  the  combined  system,  and 
13.9  per  cent  in  oral  institutions;  that  of  those  in 
day  schools  96.1  per  cent  are  in  oral  schools,  and 
3.9  per  cent  in  combined;  and  that  of  those  in 
denominational  and  private  schools,  54.8  per  cent 
are  in  combined  schools,  and  45.2  per  cent  in  oral. 
Of  all  the  pupils  in  the  schools,  72.4  per  cent  are 
in  schools  employing  the  combined  system  of  in- 
struction, and  25.6  per  cent  in  schools  employ- 
ing the  oral.  The  percentage  taught  by  the  man- 
ual or  manual  alphabet  method  is  2.0.  The  per- 
centage given  auricular  instruction  is  1.1. 

Courses  of  Study  and  Gradations  of  Pupils 

•  Schools  for  the  deaf  have  courses  of  study  cor- 
responding in  general  with  those  in  regular 
schools,  although  special  emphasis  and  drill  have 
to  be  put  upon  language — something  the  con- 
genitally  deaf  child  in  particular  finds  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  use  properly.     Pupils  capable 


288  THE  DEAF 

of  taking  the  full  course  are  carried  through  the 
kindergarten,  primary,  intermediate,  grammar 
and  high  school  grades;  and  on  the  completion 
of  the  prescribed  course  may  receive  diplomas, 
while  in  some  cases  a  certificate  may  be  granted 
for  a  certain  period  of  attendance.  Not  a  large 
proportion  of  the  pupils,  however,  really  grad- 
uate.^ 

In  all  the  schools  for  the  deaf  in  the  United 
States  in  the  year  1912-1913  there  were  14,474 
pupils.  Of  these,  11,894,  or  82.2  per  cent,  were 
in  institutions;  1,942,  or  13.4  per  cent,  in  day 
schools;  and  638,  or  4.4  per  cent,  in  denomina- 
tional and  private  schools.^  The  instructors  em- 
ployed in  all  the  schools  (not  including  teachers 
of  industries,  but  including  superintendents  or 
principals)  number  1,419,  or  one  instructor  for 
every  9.5  pupils:  in  the  institutions,  1,090,  or  one 
to  10;  in  the  day  schools,  223,  or  one  to  7.9;  and 
in  the  denominational  and  private,  92,  or  one  to 

*For  accounts  of  possible  correspondence  or  extension 
courses  for  tlie  deaf  outside  the  schools,  see  Report  of  Cali- 
fornia Institution,  1904,  p.  18. 

'From  Annals,  Jan.,  1914,  (lix.  p.  23).  For  a  few  schools 
the  figures  refer  to  the  number  present  on  November  10, 
1913.  The  total  number  on  this  date  was  13,450.  The  Volta 
Review  for  May,  1913  (xv.,  p.  99),  gives  the  total  number 
present  on  March  1,  1913,  as  13,143.  The  Report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  gives  the  number  for 
1911-1912  as  13,690:  in  institutions,  11,244;  in  day  schools, 
1,928,  and  in  denominational  and  private  schools,  518.  The 
total  number  of  volumes  in  the  libraries  of  the  institutions 
was  reported  to  be  132,461.  For  tables  respecting  the  schools, 
see  Appendix  B. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


289 


5.7/  The  total  number  of  pupils  who  have  re- 
ceived instruction  from  the  beginning  is  72,453, 
of  whom  89.0  per  cent  have  been  in  institutions, 
7.7  per  cent  in  day  schools,  and  3.3  per  cent  in 
denominational  and  private  schools. 

The  following  table,  based  on  the  figures  given 
in  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  will  show  the  number  of  pupils  in 
the  different  grades  and  classes  in  the  schools 
for  the  year  1911-1912.2 

GRADES  OF  PUPILS  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 


Kind  of  School 

KlNDERQAK- 
TEN  DepABT- 

MENTS 

Classes  Cor- 
responding 
TO  Grades  1 
TO  4  IN  Ele- 
mentary 
Schools 

Classes  Cor- 

bespondinq 

to  Grades  5 

to  8 

Classes  Cor- 
responding 
to  High 
School 
Grades 

Institutions 

Day  Schools 

Denominational 
and  Private 
Schools 

1,063 
134 

63 

5,040 
1,195 

244 

3,365 
559 

163 

1,069 
38 

16 

Total 

1,260 

6,479 

4,087 

1.123 

For  1912  there  were  reported  133  graduates 
from  the  schools:  130  from  institutions,  2  from 
day  schools,  and  1  from  denominational  or  pri- 
vate schools.^ 

^Normal  departments  for  the  training  of  hearing  teachers 
of  the  deaf  are  maintained  at  Gallaudet  College  and  the 
Clarke  School,  the  latter  having  a  special  fund,  largely  con- 
tributed by  the  American  Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching 
of  Speech  to  the  Deaf.  Several  of  the  institutions  also  have 
training  classes,  and  there  are  normal  departments  in  con- 
nection with  the  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  day  schools.  On 
the  subject  of  pensions  for  teachers  of  the  deaf,  see  Annals^ 
xxix.,  1884,  p.  304;  Proceedings  of  Convention  of  American 
Instructors,  xviii.,  1908,  p.  146;  Report  of  California  School, 
1912,  p.  12. 

'Report,  1912,  ii.,  ch.  xiii. 

•It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  physical  education  is 


290  THE  DEAF 

Industkial  Training  in  the  Schools 

The  industrial  training  given  in  the  American 
schools  for  the  deaf  forms  a  very  important  fea- 
ture of  the  work — in  many  respects  it  may  be 
said  to  be  the  most  important.  In  many  of  the 
schools  industrial  instruction  was  recognized  al- 
most from  the  very  start,  and  in  a  number 
it  commenced  practically  with  the  beginning 
of  the  work  of  education.^  It  is  now  provided 
in  all  the  institutions,  in  nearly  all  the  day  schools, 
and  in  over  half  of  the  denominational  and  pri- 
vate schools.  Many  of  the  institutions  have  large, 
well-equipped  shop  and  trade  departments,  with 
skilled  and  capable  instructors.  Nearly  every 
pupil  at  a  suitable  age  is  put  at  some  industry, 
and  encouragement  and  special  opportunity  are 
often  given  to  those  who  show  a  particular  bent 
or  aptitude.  The  value  of  this  industrial  prep- 
aration of  the  schools  in  the  after  lives  of  the  deaf 
has  already  been  referred  to.^ 

The  following  table  will  show  the  number  and 
percentage  of  the  pupils  in  the  several  kinds  of 
schools  in  industrial  departments,  according  to 

provided  for  in  the  schools  for  the  deaf  quite  as  fully  as  in 
the  regular  schools. 

^The  first  school  to  give  industrial  training  was  the 
American  School  at  Hartford,  this  being  begun  in  1822.  See 
Historv,  1893,  p.  15;  Report  of  New  Hampshire  Board  of 
Charities,  1908,  p.  184. 

''On  this  industrial  training,  see  Craftsman,  xiii.,  1908,  p. 
400. 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


291 


the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  for  1911-1912.^ 


NUMBER  OF  PUPILS  IN  INDUSTRIAL  DEPARTMENTS  IN 
FOR  THE  DEAF 

SCHOOLS 

Kind  op  School 

Total 

NUMBEB 

NxjMBEB 
IN 

Industrial 
Depart- 
ments 

Peb  cent 

Institutions 

11,244 

1,928 

518 

6,203 
66S 
196 

7,061 

65  2 

Day  Schools 

34.3 

Denominational  and  Private  Schools 

37.8 

Total 

13,690 

51.8 

In  all  the  schools  there  are  403  industrial  instruc- 
tors, 373  being  in  institutions.^ 

The  industries  taught  in  the  schools,  as  given 
in  the  Annals,^  are  as  follows: 

Art,  baking,  barbering,  basket-making,  blacksmith- 
ing,  bookbinding,  bookkeeping,  bricklaying,  broom- 
making,  building  trades,  cabinet-making,  calcimining, 
carpentry,  chalk-engraving,  cementing,  chair-making, 
china-painting,  construction  work,  cooking,  clay-model- 
ing, coopery,  dairying,  domestic  science,  drawing,  dress- 
making, electricity,  embroidery,  engineering,  fancy  work, 
farming,  floriculture,  gardening,  glazing,  harness-mak- 
ing, house  decoration,  half-tone  engraving,  housework, 
horticulture,  ironing,  knife  work,  knitting,  lace-mak- 
ing, laundering,  leather  work,  manual  training,  mat- 
tress-making, millinery,  needlework,  nursing,  painting, 
paper-hanging,  photography,  plastering,  plate-engrav- 
ing, plumbing,  pottery,  poultry-farming,  printing, 
pyrography,  raffia,  rug-weaving,  sewing,  shoemaking, 
shop  work,   sign-painting,   sloyd,   stone-laying,   stencil 

*ii.,  ch.  xiii. 

^Annals,  Jan.,  1914  (lix.,  p.  23). 

*lhid,  p.  42. 


^92  THE  DEAF 

work,  tailoring,  tin-work,  tray  work,  typewriting, 
Venetian  iron-work,  weaving,  wood-carving,  wood- 
engraving,  wood-turning,  wood-working,  working  in 
iron,  and  the  use  of  tools. 

The  number  and  kinds  of  particular  industries 
taught  in  the  different  schools  vary  not  a  little. 
In  a  few  as  many  as  a  score  are  offered,  while  in 
\  others  only  three  or  four  are  given.  The  average 
seems  to  be  about  six  or  eight.  The  most  usual 
industries  afforded  are  art,  cabinet-making,  car- 
pentry, cooking,  domestic  science,  drawing,  dress- 
making, farming,  gardening,  laundering,  paint- 
ing, printing,  sewing,  shoemaking,  sign-painting, 
tailoring,  wood-working,  and  the  use  of  tools. 
The  most  common  of  all  are  carpentry,  sewing, 
printing,  farming,  shoemaking,  and  painting.  In 
most  of  the  institutions  papers  are  printed  to  af- 
ford practical  instruction  in  printing,  as  well  as 
to  give  local  news  of  interest.  These  papers  are 
published  weekly,  bi-weekly  or  monthly.  A  num- 
ber of  the  schools,  especially  those  in  agricultural 
states,  also  have  small  experimental  farms  in  con- 
nection with  their  industrial  work,  and  dairy 
farming  and  truck  gardening  are  often  given  par- 
ticular attention.^ 

*In  some  of  the  schools,  as  we  find  from  the  reports, 
the  value  of  the  products  of  the  farms  and  gardens  may 
amount  to  a  tidy  sum,  as  may  also  be  the  case  with  the 
trade  schools. 


CHAPTER  XX 

COST   TO  THE  STATE   FOR  EDUCATION 

Value  of  the  Peoperty  Used  foe  the  Education  op 
THE  Deaf 

THE  various  provisions  for  the  education 
of  the  deaf  have  now  been  examined. 
There  is  to  be  considered  but  one  question 
further.  This  is,  what  is  the  cost  of  it  all?  In 
the  present  chapter  we  are  to  see  if  we  may  not 
obtain  some  figures  representing  this  cost  to  the 
state.  First  we  shall  find  what  the  plants,  that 
is,  the  grounds  and  buildings  in  actual  use,  are 
worth  in  dollars  and  cents. 

Taking  the  nearest  available  statistics,  which 
are  those  for  the  year  1912-1913,  we  have  the 
plants  of  the  institutions  valued  at  $16,856,338,^ 
or,  in  round  numbers,  nearly  seventeen  million, 

*The  figures  in  this  chapter  are  for  the  most  part  from 
Annals  for  January,  1914  (lix.,  pp.  26,  27),  usually  for  the 
latest  fiscal  year,  these  being  supplemented  in  a  few  cases  from 
the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1912  (ii.,  ch.  xiii.).  In  the  institutions  where  there  are  depart- 
ments both  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind,  we  have  ascertained  the 
proportionate  part  for  the  deaf  of  the  entire  Institution. 
If  no  allowance  is  made  for  the  blind  in  these,  the  worth  of 
all  is  $17,751,186,  and  the  amount  of  property  for  each  pupil 
$1,492.  For  1911-1912  the  value  of  all  was  $16,454,798,  or 
according  to  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education, 
$16,387,726.  In  this  Report  the  value  of  scientific  apparatus, 
furniture,  etc.,  is  stated  to  be  $918,053. 

293 


294  THE  DEAF 

dollars.  In  all  the  institutions  there  were  in  this 
year  11,894  pupils,  and  we  may  thus  calculate 
that  there  is  property  worth  $1,414  for  each 
pupil.  We  do  not  know  the  full  value  of  the 
property  used  in  the  day  schools  and  the  denomi- 
national and  private  schools,^  but  this  would  no 
doubt  increase  by  some  two  million  dollars  the 
value  of  the  property  employed  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  deaf.  Hence  we  have  something  like 
nineteen  million  dollars  as  the  amount  invested  in 
plants  for  the  education  of  the  deaf  in  the  United 
States. 

For  new  buildings,  repairs,  and  general' ex- 
penditures for  lasting  improvements,  so  far  as  is 
reported,  there  was  expended  on  institutions 
$848,068  for  the  year  1912-1913,  which  may  rep- 
resent the  yearly  cost  of  the  upkeep  of  the  in- 
stitutions.^ For  the  other  schools  we  have  few 
figures,  but  they  would  add  to  this  sum  somewhat. 

*  In  most  cases,  as  we  have  seen,  the  day  schools  are  housed 
in  public  school  buildings,  special  establishments  being  pro- 
vided only  in  a  few  large  cities.  In  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  the  property  value  of  four  day  schools, 
two  being  large  ones,  is  put  at  $250,055,  or  $525  for  each  pupil ; 
and  if  this  be  accepted  as  a  measure,  the  property  value  of  all 
the  day  schools  is  $1,019,550.  The  property  value  of  seven 
denominational  and  private  schools  is  likewise  given  as  $324,- 
717,  or  $1,358  for  each  pupil ;  and  if  this  is  taken  as  a  measure, 
the  property  value  of  all  is  $865,404. 

^  In  1910-1911  this  was  $503,323,  and  in  1911-1912,  $772,245. 
If  allowance  be  made  for  the  dual  schools,  it  is  about  ten 
per  cent  less.  In  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  it  is  placed  at  $568,136  for  1911-1912. 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  295 

Cost  of  the  Maintenance  of  the  Schools 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  institutions  for  the 
year  1912-1913  there  was  expended  $3,297,440.^ 
In  forty-four,  or  about  two-thirds,  of  the  day 
schools  for  the  year  1911-1912  there  was  ex- 
pended $182,710,  and  on  the  basis  of  $120  as  the 
average  cost  of  the  pupils  in  them,  we  have  $225,- 
720  as  the  full  cost  of  the  support  of  the  day 
schools.  For  five  of  the  private  schools,  the  cost 
per  pupil  was  $225,  and  assuming  that  this  will 
hold  for  all,  we  have  $133,550  as  the  full  cost  of 
the  support  of  such  schools,  a  part  of  course 
coming  from  tuition  fees.  Then  our  total  ex- 
penditures amount  to  $3,656,710,^  or  to  over 
three  and  a  half  million  dollars,  which  represents 
the  annual  cost  of  the  education  of  the  deaf  in  the 
United  States.^ 

Form  of  Public  Appropriations 

Save  for  certain  endowment  funds  in  a  few  in- 
stitutions,^ and  for  limited  donations  in  a  small 

*With  no  allowance  for  the  dual  schools,  this  is  $3,423,126. 
In  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  it  is  $3,285,- 
099,  for  all  but  six  institutions. 

='At  the  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections  in  1906 
this  was  estimated  to  be  $3,200,000.    Proceedings,  p.  249. 

'For  tables  as  to  the  cost  of  the  support  of  the  schools, 
see  Appendix  B, 

*  These  endowment  funds  are  found  for  the  most  part  only 
in  certain  of  the  semi-public  institutions,  and  in  a  few  state 
schools  which  have  received  land  from  the  federal  govern- 
ment. In  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  the 
amount  of  productive  funds  in  thirteen  states  for  1911-1912 


296  THE  DEAF 

number  of  schools,  all  the  means  for  the  support 
of  the  schools  for  the  deaf,  other  than  the  private 
ones,  come  from  the  pubhc  treasury.  In  some  of 
the  day  schools  there  are  municipal  subventions; 
in  a  few  states  the  maintenance  of  certain  pupils 
is  paid  for  by  the  counties  from  which  they 
come ;  ^  and  in  the  case  of  the  Columbia  Institu- 
tion at  Washington  support  is  received  from  the 
national  government.^  With  these  exceptions, 
the  entire  maintenance  of  the  schools  is  under- 
taken by  the  legislatures  of  the  respective  states.^ 

is  given  as  $3,372,565,  as  follows:  Maine,  $2,000;  Massa- 
chusetts, $193,674  (in  1910-1911,  $369,723)  ;  Connecticut,  $403,- 
000;  New  York,  $1,002,633;  Pennsylvania,  $373,758;  Maryland, 
$4,500;  District  of  Columbia,  $11,000;  Kentucky,  $9,000; 
North  Dakota,  $600,000;  South  Dakota,  $400,000;  Montana, 
$160,000 ;  Utah,  $160,000 ;  California,  $53,000.  Thus  practically 
two-fifths  belongs  in  the  states  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  nearly  one-third  being  in  New 
York  alone;  while  a  little  under  two-fifths  belongs  in  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Montana  and  Utah. 

*This  is  especially  true  of  New  York,  where  the  counties 
pay  the  entire  amount  up  to  the  age  of  twelve,  and  after 
that  the  state. 

'In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  Congress  has 
been  asked  to  grant  $100,000  to  "encourage  the  establishment 
of  homes  in  the  states  and  territories  for  teaching  articulate 
speech  and  vocal  language  to  deaf  children  before  they  are 
of  school  age".  Teachers  are  to  be  trained  for  this  purpose, 
and  pupils  are  to  enter  at  two  years  of  age  and  remain  tili 
the  regular  school  age.  See  Report  of  Pennsylvania  Home 
for  Training  in  Speech  of  Deaf  Children,  1904,  p.  5;  Pro- 
ceedings of  Conference  of  National  Association  for  the  Study 
and  Education  of  Exceptional  Children,  1911,  p.  6i. 

'Charges  for  clothing  and  transportation  of  indigent  pupils 
are  as  a  usual  thing  paid  for  by  the  county,  though  this  is 
assumed  by  gome  states.  Often  a  given  sum,  as  thirty  dollars, 
is  allowed  for  clothing,  or  the  actual  cost  thereof  is  collected 
from  the  county.  This  is  done  through  the  proper  admin- 
istrative oflace^  of  the  county,  there  being  also  some  judicial 
procedure,  as  where  the  county  judge  or  similar  official  cer- 
tifies by  proof.     The  school  is  then  reimbursed  for  the  ex- 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  297 

Appropriations  by  the  legislatures  are  usually 
made  in  lump  sums.^  In  the  case  of  the  semi- 
public  institutions  the  allowances  are  upon  a  per 
capita  basis,  being  from  $260  to  $357,  but  more 
often  near  $300.  In  a  few  of  the  state  schools 
appropriations  are  also  based  upon  the  number 
of  pupils,  as  in  Alabama  with  $230  a  year  for 
each  pupil,  in  Kentucky  with  $150  a  year,  and  in 
Iowa  with  $35  a  quarter,  the  last  two  states  hav- 
ing additional  annual  grants.  In  the  states  in 
which  pupils  are  sent  to  schools  outside,  a  sum 
of  from  $200  to  $300  is  allowed  for  each  pupil 
thus  provided  for.  In  a  few  cases  funds  are  re- 
ceived from  a  special  tax  assessment  levied  for 
the  benefit  of  the  school,  as  in  Colorado  with  a 
one-fifth  mill  tax  on  the  assessed  property  valua- 
tion of  the  state,^  and  in  North  Dakota  with  six 
per  cent  of  one  mill. 

penditures  it  may  have  made.  Some  such  procedure  is  quite 
general,  especially  in  the  South  and  West,  though  in  a  few 
states,  as  Vermont  and  New  Jersey,  the  town  or  township, 
where  this  is  the  political  division,  plays  a  similar  part. 
In  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  Maine,  Louisiana,  California, 
Nevada,  and  possibly  other  states,  these  charges  are  paid  by 
the  state.  In  Maryland  they  may  be  paid  by  the  county, 
city  or  state. 

^It  happens  sometimes  that  legislatures  are  inclined  to 
reduce  the  appropriations  to  as  low  a  sum  as  possible,  and 
superintendents  may  receive  commendation  for  efforts  to  cut 
down  expenditures.  There  is  danger,  however,  that  ^uch  a 
policy  may  be  carried  to  a  point  where  efficiency  is  sacrificed  to 
seeming  economy.  On  the  question  of  cost,  see  Report  of 
Mississippi  School,  1909,  p.  11;  Iowa  Bulletin  of  State  In- 
stitutions, June,  1907,  ix.,  3;  Ohio  Bulletin  of  Charities  and 
Corrections,  Nov.,  1907,  xiii.,  4. 

^'On  the  value  of  this  tax,  see  Report  of  Colorado  School, 
1896,  p.  22. 


298  THE  DEAF 

Cost  to  the  State  for  Each  Pupil 

The  average  cost  for  the  support  of  the  pupils 
in  the  institutions  for  the  year  1912-1913  was 
$277.23/  In  few  of  the  schools  does  the  cost 
go  as  low  as  $200,  while  in  a  number  it  is  between 
$300  and  $400.  The  cost  per  pupil  in  the  day 
schools  averages,  where  known,  $120.60;  ^  and  in 
the  private  schools,  where  known,  $225.33.^  For 
pupils  in  the  common  schools  of  the  country,  the 
average  cost  is  $31.65.*  Thus  it  costs  the  state 
eight  times  as  much  to  educate  its  deaf  children 
in  institutions  as  it  does  its  hearing  children  in  the 
regular  public  schools,  and  four  times  as  much  to 
educate  them  in  day  schools. 

The  education  of  the  deaf,  then,  is  not  an  inex- 
pensive undertaking  on  the  part  of  the  state. 
Because  of  the  special  arrangements  necessary 
for  its  accomplishment,  it  comes  high,  compared 
with  the  cost  of  education  in  general.  But  con- 
sidered merely  as  an  investment,  the  outlay  for 
this  instruction  bears  returns  of  a  character  sur- 
passed in  few  other  fields  of  the  state's  endeavor. 

^In  1907-1908  this  was  $257.02;  in  1909-1910,  $253.92;  in 
1910-1911,  $259.63;  and  in  1911-1912,  $262.71.  Without  al- 
lowance for  the  blind  in  the  dual  schools,  the  amount  in 
1912-1913  is  $289.60.  According  to  the  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  the  average  cost  is  $303.58.  It  may  be 
noted  in  this  connection  that  the  per  capita  cost  for  the  blind 
in  schools  is  more  than  that  for  the  deaf,  being  $359. 

^  In  1910-1911  this  was  $130.28. 

» In  1910-1911  this  was  $264.06. 

*  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1909-1910.  The 
figures  for  subsequent  years  have  reference  rather  to  aver- 
age attendance. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

PUBLIC  DONATIONS  OF  LAND  TO  SCHOOLS 

Grants  by  the  National  Government 

TO  the  schools  in  some  of  the  states  land  has 
been  donated,  either  as  an  investment,  the 
proceeds  of  which  should  be  used  for  their 
benefit,  or  as  sites  for  the  erection  of  buildings. 
This  has  been  done  by  the  national  government, 
by  the  states,  by  cities  and  by  individuals  and  cor- 
porations. The  most  important  of  such  gifts  have 
been  the  grants  of  the  public  domain  made  by 
Congress  for  the  benefit  of  certain  of  the  state  in- 
stitutions. Shortly  after  the  work  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  deaf  had  commenced  in  the  country,  it 
bestowed  23,000  acres  upon  the  Hartford  school 
and  a  township  of  land  upon  the  Kentucky.^ 
After  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century  it  came 
again  materially  to  the  aid  of  this  education, 
this  time  by  directing  that  certain  tracts  of  the 
public  lands  located  in  states  about  to  be  admitted 
to  the  Union  should  be  set  apart  for  the  benefit 
of  the  schools.     Thus   in  the   enabling  act  of 

^  We  have  also  seen  how  applications  were  made  to  Congress 
for  the  endowment  of  other  schools. 


300  THE  DEAF 

1889  ^  for  the  admission  of  the  states  of  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota  and  Montana,  land  was 
set  aside  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  for  the  deaf 
and  the  blind,  which  are  mentioned  by  name.  In 
North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota  the  number  of 
acres  allowed  to  each  was  40,000,  and  in  Mon- 
tana 50,000.^  Likewise  when  Wyoming  was  ad- 
mitted in  1890,^  30,000  acres  were  granted  for  an 
institution  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind,  though  the 
school  has  not  yet  been  established.  When  Utah 
was  admitted  in  1896,^  100,000  acres  were 
granted  to  the  school  for  the  deaf.  On  the  admis- 
sion of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  in  1910,^  like 
amounts  were  respectively  granted  for  institu- 
tions for  the  deaf  and  the  blind,  50,000  acres  hav- 
ing already  been  set  aside  in  the  latter  while  a 
territory.^ 

*Stat.  at  Large,  1889,  ch.  180.  Washington  was  also  ad- 
mitted by  this  act,  and  there  was  a  grant  of  200,000  acres 
for  "  charitable,  penal  and  reformatory  institutions  ".  The 
schools  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind,  which  were  not  mentioned 
by  name,  seem  not  to  have  shared  in  this  grant. 

'  Similar  amounts  were  allowed  to  the  reform  schools,  the 
agricultural  colleges  and  the  universities. 

» Stat,  at  Large,  ch.  664.  When  Idaho  was  admitted  the 
same  year  (ibid.,  ch.  656)  150,000  acres  were  granted  to 
charitable,  educational,  penal  and  reformatory  institutions, 
the  school  for  the  deaf  not  being  directly  mentioned. 

*Ibid.,  1894,  ch.  138.  Similar  amounts  were  allowed  for  the 
school  for  the  blind  and  other  institutions.  As  the  school  in 
Utah  is  for  both  the  deaf  and  the  blind,  it  really  has  200,000 
acres. 

nbid.,  1910,  ch.  310.  In  the  act  admitting  Oklahoma,  though 
the  school  for  the  deaf  is  not  mentioned  among  the  institutions 
upon  which  land  is  bestowed,  it  has  shared  in  the  grant, 
having  land  reported  to  be  worth  at  least  $350,000.  Annals, 
Ivi.,  1911,  p.  206. 

•  In  general  with  respect  to  the  land  granted  by  Congress,  it 


GRANTS  OF  LAND  301 

Grants  by  the  States 

Grants  by  the  states  themselves  for  the  schools 
on  a  large  scale  have  not  been  numerous.  The 
state  of  Texas  has  set  apart  large  tracts  of  public 
land  for  its  institutions,  the  school  for  the  deaf 
coming  in  for  100,000  acres  as  its  share.  The 
school  in  Michigan  has  received  a  number  of  sec- 
tions of  the  state  salt  spring  lands,  amounting  to 
16,000  acres.^ 

Grants  by  Cities  or  Citizens 

Small  tracts  of  land  have  been  donated  in  some 
cases  by  cities  where  the  schools  were  to  be  es- 
tablished, sometimes  accompanied  by  a  cash  dona- 
tion as  a  further  inducement  for  a  particular 
location.  Similar  gifts  have  been  made  by  indi- 
viduals and  corporations.  These  donations  have 
occurred  in  about  half  of  the  states,  but  they 
have  usually  been  small  in  size,  most  being  of 
five  or  ten  acres.^ 


is  provided  that  such  land  is  not  to  be  sold  at  less  than  $10  an 
acre. 

^The  state  of  Massachusetts  granted  a  small  parcel  of  land 
to  the  Horace  Mann  school  in  Boston.  To  the  school  in 
Missouri  40  acres  were  granted  by  the  state,  and  to  that  in 
Arkansas  two  tracts  of  land,  one  being  of  100  acres. 

^Thus  land  of  perhaps  five  acres  or  less  has  been  donated 
to  the  schools  in  California,  District  of  Columbia,  Illinois,  New 
York  (New  York  Institution,  Le  Couteulx  St.  Mary's,  and 
Central  New  York)  Oregon,  Pennsylvania  (Oral  and  Penn- 
sylvania Home),  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  doubtless  to  other 
schools.  Larger  tracts,  of  ten  acres  or  more,  have  been  given 
In    Colorado,    Florida,    Idaho,    Michigan    (state    school    and 


THE  DEAF 

Evangelical  Lutheran  Institute),  Nebraska,  Pennsylvania 
(Western),  South  Dakota,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and 
perhaps  elsewhere.  To  the  Kansas  school  170  acres  were 
presented,  to  the  Minnesota  65,  to  the  Washington  100,  to  the 
Oklahoma  60,  to  the  school  for  the  colored  in  Oklahoma  100, 
and  to  the  school  for  the  deaf,  together  with  that  for  the  blind, 
in  Ohio  180.  To  the  New  York  Institution  for  Improved  In- 
struction the  city  of  New  York  granted  the  land  for  ninety- 
nine  years  at  an  annual  rental  of  one  dollar. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

PRIVATE  BENEFACTIONS  TO  SCHOOLS 
Donations  op  Money  to  Schools 

IX  our  final  chapter  on  the  provision  for  the 
schools  for  the  deaf  we  are  to  consider  how 
far  they  have  been  assisted  by  private  munifi- 
cence. We  have  already  seen  that  certain  of  the 
schools  in.  the  East — those  we  have  called  "  semi- 
public  institutions " — ^were  started  by  private 
societies  and  were  supported  entirely  by  private 
funds  till  the  state  came  to  their  aid,  though  in 
no  instance  was  this  dependence  on  private  means 
of  long  duration.  We  have  also  seen  that  in  a 
number  of  states  private  schools  were  first 
started,  in  a  brief  time  to  be  taken  over  by  the 
state,  and  thus  received  a  modicum  of  private 
aid.  In  addition,  there  have  been  from  time  to 
time  donations  from  private  sources  to  one  school 
or  another. 

As  to  the  entire  amount  of  these  private  dona- 
tions to  the  schools,  it  is  of  course  impossible  to 
say.  The  full  receipts  of  the  various  schools  can- 
not be  known,  and  our  reckonings  must  neces- 
sarily be  incomplete.^    However,  the  data  which 

*In  the  case  of  some  of  the  schools,  figures  of  a  financial 

303 


304  THE  DEAF 

we  have  are  quite  suffeient  to  enable  us  to  dis- 
cern in  what  measure  schools  for  the  deaf  have 
been  assisted  by  means  other  than  public,  and  in 
what  proportion  the  distribution  has  taken  place ; 
and  our  calculations,  based  on  the  best  informa- 
tion to  be  obtained,  may  not  be  altogether  with- 
out value.  ^ 

We  find,  then,  that  to  a  considerable  number 
of  the  schools,  apparently  the  majority,  there 
have  been  gifts  large  or  small  from  private 
sources.  In  most  of  these  cases,  however,  the 
gifts  have  been  slight,  and  have  almost  always 
come  when  the  schools  were  being  started,  usually 
ceasing  soon  after  their  establishment  or  their 
taking  over  by  the  state.  Nearly  all  the  dona- 
tions of  any  importance  have  been  to  schools  in 
the  East,  the  greater  part  also  coming  in  their 
early  days  and  when  still  in  private  hands. 

At  present  in  the  great  number  of  the  schools 
such  gifts  are  not  bestowed.  In  perhaps  a  dozen 
schools — practically  all  in  the  East — they  are 
still  received  in  greater  or  lesser  degree ;  and  come 
in  three  forms:  1.  as  membership  fees  in  some 
half  dozen  schools;  2.  as  certain  annual  dona- 
tions, varying  in  amount,  in  about  the  same  num- 

nature  are  not  to  be  had,  and  in  many  little  record  has  been 
kept,  especially  when  gifts  have  been  small. 

^  In  our  discussion,  few  estimates  have  been  made,  and  these 
have  been  conservative.  It  should  be  stated  that  only  a  part 
of  the  figures  given  are  "  official ",  and  for  the  rest  the  writer 
alone  is  responsible.  No  reference  is  made  to  schools  that  are 
not  now  in  existence,  nor  is  any  money  value  set  on  the  land 
which  has  been  donated  to  some  of  the  schools. 


PRIVATE  BENEFACTIONS  305 

ber;  and  3.  as  an  occasional  legacy  or  similar  gift 
to  some  school  or  other/ 

In  respect  to  the  funds  already  received,  we 
find  that  the  great  preponderance  have  fallen  in 
four  states,  namely,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  In  five  others 
there  have  been  gifts  of  what  may  be  called  meas- 
urable size:  District  of  Columbia,  California, 
Colorado,  Illinois,  and  Vermont.  In  the  remain- 
ing states  private  benefactions  have  been  few: 
where  they  have  occurred  they  have  been  small 
and  infrequent. 

In  a  score  of  schools  or  more  there  seem  to  have 
been  gifts  of  a  few  thousand  dollars — ^hardly  over 
ten  or  fifteen  thousand,  and  in  most  much  less.^ 

*  Now  and  then  a  gift  has  been  in  the  form  of  a  scholarship, 
usually  of  $5,000.  Some  of  the  schools  aided  by  fees  are  the 
Pennsylvania  Institution,  Western  Pennsylvania,  Pennsyl- 
vania Oral,  New  York  Institution  for  Improved  Instruction, 
and  Le  Couteulx  St.  Mary's  (New  York).  Some  that  receive 
annual  donations  varying  in  amount  are  the  New  England 
(Massachusetts),  Sarah  Fuller  (Massachusetts),  Pennsylvania 
Home,  New  York  Institution  for  Improved  Instruction,  St. 
Joseph's  (New  York),  and  Le  Couteulx  St.  Mary's  (New 
York).  It  should  be  remarked  that  the  three  last  named  in- 
stitutions are  affiliated  to  an  extent  with  certain  religious 
bodies,  receiving  assistance  from  this  source  also.  The  smaller 
denominational  schools  receive  similar  aid  irregularly. 

2  Some  of  the  schools  that  seem  to  have  received  gifts  of 
from  five  to  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  or  thereabouts,  are  the 
Kentucky,  Maryland,  Ohio,  Central  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
Oral,  Tennessee,  and  the  day  schools  of  Milwaukee.  Some  of 
those  that  have  received  gifts  somewhat  smaller  are  the  Ala- 
bama, Illinois,  Michigan,  Mississippi,  Horace  Mann  (Massa- 
chusetts), Western  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  the 
day  schools  of  Chicago.  More  trivial  or  more  uncertain  amounts 
have  been  received  in  Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia,  Maine,  New 
Mexico,  Albany  (New  York),  Oregon,  South  Dakota,  Utah, 
and  the  day  schools  of  a  few  cities. 


THE  DEAF 

In  some  sixteen,  donations  appear  to  have  been 
received  of  more  appreciable  size — twenty-five 
thousand  dollars  and  upwards.  In  about  half  of 
these  the  gifts  seem  to  have  been  from  twenty- 
five  thousand  to  fifty  thousand,  in  one  or  two 
cases  possibly  more:  the  California,  Colorado, 
Columbia,  New  England  ( Massachusetts ) , 
Sarah  Fuller  (Massachusetts),  Pennsylvania 
Home,  and  Austine  (Vermont) }  To  six  schools 
donations  seem  to  have  reached  a  sum  between 
seventy-five  or  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  and 
twice  that  amount.  Four  of  these  are  in  New 
York :  the  New  York  Institution,  the  Institution 
for  Improved  Instruction,  St.  Joseph's  and  Le 
Couteulx  St.  Mary's;  one  in  Pennsylvania,  the 
Western  Pennsylvania;  and  one  in  Illinois,  the 
Ephpheta.  In  three  schools  the  quarter  million 
mark  has  been  passed:  the  American  in  Con- 
necticut, and  the  Clarke  in  Massachusetts,  both 
with  receipts  well  beyond  this  figure;  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Institution,  which  has  probably 
been  the  largest  recipient  of  all. 

Total  private  gifts  to  schools  for  the  deaf  in 
the  United  States  would  probably  foot  up  to 
little  under  two  and  a  quarter  million  dollars,  and 

*  Gifts  to,  semi-public  institutions  as  the  Mystic,  Connecticut, 
and  Boston,  Massachusetts,  have  also  probably  been  made, 
though  we  do  not  know  of  what  size;  and  also  to  some  of 
the  denominational  and  private  schools.  The  McCowen 
Homes  of  Illinois  have  received  some  gifts,  .especially  at  their 
beginning. 


PRIVATE  BENEFACTIONS  307 

perhaps  to  two  and  a  half  millions,  though  these 
iSgures  cannot  be  fully  substantiated. 

Gifts  for  Pupils  in  the  Schooi^s 

There  have  been  gifts  for  the  pupils  in  the 
schools  as  well  as  for  the  schools  themselves. 
These  have  been  of  various  kinds :  clothing,  books, 
pictures,  magazines,  newspapers,  Christmas  pres- 
ents, prizes,  etc.,  as  well  as  money  gifts  in  a  few 
cases.  In  many  instances  reduced  transporta- 
tion has  been  allowed  on  railroads,  and  there  have 
been  a  number  of  benefactions  of  like  character. 
We  have  already  referred  to  the  funds  left  to 
certain  of  the  schools  in  trust  for  deaf-blind 
pupils.^ 

Present  Tendencies  of  Private  Benefactions 

Private  benefaction,  as  we  see,  has  not  played 
any  great  part  in  providing  the  means  of  educa- 
tion for  the  deaf  in  the  United  States.  In  a  few 
schools  private  gifts  have  been  of  appreciable  aid 
in  the  work,  but  on  the  whole  they  have  not  been 
of  considerable  moment,  and  in  the  great  ma- 
jority of  schools  they  have  been  practically 
negligible.  To  judge  from  past  experience,  it 
would  not  seem  likely  that  in  the  future  many 
of  the  schools  will  to  any  great  extent  be  bene- 

•  »The  American   School  at  Hartford  has  a  fund   of  $2,000 
to  be  used  for  the  publication  of  books  for  the  deaf. 


308  THE  DEAF 

ficiaries  from  private  means,  or  that  they  will 
thus  be  enabled  to  extend  their  plants  or  to  make 
innovations  as  yet  unattempted,  though  of  course 
such  a  thing  is  possible. 

This  condition,  however,  is  not  to  be  entirely 
deplored.  Many  of  the  schools,  it  is  true,  could 
receive  large  money  benefactions  to  most  desir- 
able ends,  and  in  many  cases  the  work  of  the 
schools  for  the  best  results  is  hampered  for  lack 
of  sufficient  funds.  Yet  the  schools  may  feel  that 
they  are  in  reality  but  agencies  of  the  state  in 
carrying  out  one  of  its  great  functions,  and  as 
such  should  have  no  need  to  call  upon  or  depend 
upon  means  other  than  the  state's.  Whether  or 
not  in  the  course  of  time  there  may  be  an  in- 
creased incentive  for  private  gifts,  it  would  seem 
that  the  schools  should  be  entitled  to  look  with 
full  confidence  to  the  attention  and  care  of  the 
state,  since  it  is  but  contributing  to  the  education 
of  its  citizens. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

CONCLUSIONS  WITH  RESPECT  TO  THE  WORK 
FOR  THE  DEAF  IN  AMERICA 

WE  have  now  examined  the  position  of  the 
deaf  in  society  in  America  and  the 
course  and  the  extent  of  the  treatment 
accorded  them.  It  only  remains  for  us  to  inquire 
if  this  treatment  is  well-considered,  and  how  far 
it  is  commensurate  with  the  real,  actual  needs  of 
the  deaf,  and  at  the  same  time  consonant  with 
the  larger  interests  of  society.  ^^ 

The  question  of  paramount  concern  to  society 
is  in  respect  to  the  possibilities  of  the  prevention 
of  deafness.  As  yet  it  would  seem  that  only  a 
minor  degree  of  attention  had  been  directed  to 
this  consideration,  though  it  is  likely  that  in  the 
future  much  more  serious  study  and  thought  will 
be  given  to  it.  The  problem  is  for  the  greater 
part  in  the  hands  of  medical  science,  and  for  much 
of  it  we  shall  probably  have  to  wait  for  solution 
in  the  laboratory;  while  no  small  aid  can  be  ren- 
dered by  general  measures  for  the  protection  of 
health.  Already  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
there  is  less  deafness  from  certain  diseases  than 
in  the  past,  though  the  statistics  that  we  have  on 


310  THE  DEAF 

the  question  are  not  as  definite  as  could  be  wished. 
The  matter  is  really  a  part  of  the  long  battle 
against  disease,  and  as  human  skill  takes  one 
position  after  another,  it  may  be  that  many  of 
those  diseases  bringing  deafness  will  be  forced  to 
yield,  and  that  such  deafness  will  thus  cease  in 
great  part  to  be  an  affliction  upon  human  flesh. 
Eugenics  also  will  be  looked  to  for  help,  and  it 
may  in  time  bring  to  light  much  that  is  now  hid- 
den from  our  ken.  As  yet  ourknowledge  of  the 
xauses^ of  deaf ness  fromjiirth  is  vgg^^jmperfect. 
A  small  part  may  be  ascribed  to  consanguineous 
marriages,  and  a  larger  part  to  the  marriages  of 
those  whose  families  are  affected  with  deafness, 
these  perhaps  not  being  wholly  distinct,  and  to- 
gether comprising  a  little  over  half  of  congenital 
deafness.  Marriages  of  relatives,  even  though 
not  of  frequent  occurrence  so  far  as  deafness  is 
affected,  have  a  relation  to  it  which  is  not  to  be 
ignored.  Intermarriages  of  the  deaf  themselves 
are  not  found  for  the  most  part  to  result  in  deaf 
offspring;  while  the  likelihood  of  such  is  not 
always  greater  when  both  parents  are  deaf  than 
when  one  is  deaf  and  the  other  hearing.  The 
one  distinct  fact  of  which  we  seem  altogether 
certain  in  this  matter  is  that  when  there  is  in  the 
parent  congenital  deafness,  or  especially  when 
there  are  deaf  relatives  concerned,  the  chances  are 
vastly  increased  of  deaf  offspring.    These  are  the 


CONCLUSIONS  311 

danger  signals,  and  not  to  be  passed  without 
heed.  As  to  that  form  of  deafness  occurring 
when  consanguinity  and  antecedent  deafness  are 
not  involved,  we  are  in  greater  ignorance.  For 
most  of  it,  however,  we  may  believe  that  there  is 
inherited  some  strain  or  influence  predisposing  to 
deafness;  and  that  in  the  discovery  and  applica- 
tion of  eugenic  principles  a  greater  or  less  portion 
will  be  eliminated. 

Though,  so  far  as  is  discernible  from  the 
immediate  prospect,  we  cannot  look  to  an  early 
disappearance  of  deafness  from  the  race,  there 
are  indications  at  present  that  deafness  is  tending 
to  become  less.  The  probabilities  are  that  the 
future  will  be  able  to  report  advance,  and  so  far 
as  the  ultimate  results  are  concerned,  we  have 
no  reason  to  be  other  than  hopeful. 

In  respect  to  what  has  been  accomplished  for 
the  deaf  since  America  has  become  concerned  in 
them,  we  have  a  record  that  may  well  be  a  dis- 
tinct cause  o'f  pride.  The  work  for  the  deaf  in 
America  is  hardly  a  hundred  years  old.  Yet  in 
that  time  there  has  transpired  what,  without 
violence  being  done  to  language,  can  be  called 
a  revolution.  A  century  ago  the  deaf  were  prac- 
tically outside  the  pale  of  human  thought  and 
activities.  They  were  in  a  measure  believed  to 
l^e  without  reason,  and  were  little  less  than  out- 
easts  in  society.    To-day  they  have  become  active 


Sn  THE  DE^F 

components  of  the  state,  possessed  of  education, 
on  a  level  with  their  fellow-men  nearly  every- 
where in  the  scale  of  human  employment,  capable 
of  all  the  responsibilities  of  life,  and  standing  in 
the  full  stature  of  citizenship. 

Perhaps  the  first  workers  for  the  deaf  had  not 
placed  their  faith  too  high  after  all,  when  they 
declared  that  the  deaf  and  dumb  were  to  be  re- 
stored to  the  ranks  of  their  species.  Perhaps, 
after  all,  the  visions  of  these  men  have  come  true. 
Perhaps  this  that  we  call  education  has  had  some- 
thing of  the  power  they  were  trying  to  articulate. 
For  it  has  come  about  that  a  part  of  society 
known  as  the  deaf  and  dumb  has  been  brought 
to  a  place  of  honor  and  worth  and  usefulness  in 
the  community  in  which  they  live. 

However  much  of  what  was  claimed  has  been 
achieved,  it  is  certain  that  a  great  part  has  been 
realized.  It  has  been  by  a  slow,  silent  process, 
keeping  time  with  the  years,  but  none  the  less 
wonderful  things  have  been  wrought;  and 
through  it  all  the  advance  of  the  deaf  has  been 
constant  and  onward.  It  might  be  said  with  all 
truth  that  this  whole  progress  has  been  simply 
the  march  of  events.  Education  has  ever  been 
the  master  passion  of  Americans,  and  in  its  wide 
sweep  the  deaf  too  have  been  gathered  in,  and 
have  been  borne  to  the  place  where  all  the  state 
had  to  offer  as  instruction  was  laid  before  them. 


COi{CLUSIONS  313 

Yet  it  remains  thai  by  and  through  all  this  the 
deaf  have  been  the  gainers  as  no  other  people  in 
the  world  have  ever  been,  and  their  story  is  as 
no  other's  in  the  rise  of  a  section  of  mankind  to- 
wards the  richness  and  fullness  of  living  which 
are  the  fruits  of  humanized  society. 

Great  Indeed  can  be  the  rejoicing  of  the  deaf, 
lor  they  are  those  to  whom  the  way  has  been  hard 
and  long,  but  who  have  come  from  the  dark- 
ness into  the  light. 

Yet  the  victory  of  the  deaf  is  not  complete. 
They  have  not  reached  the  full  position  among 
men  to  which  they  are  entitled.  So  long  as  peo- 
ple look  upon  them  as  an  unnatural  portiom^f 
the  race,  view  them  with  suspicion  or  hold  them 
as  of  peculiar  temperament  and  habits,  or 
otherwise  consider  them  distinct  from  the  rest 
of  their  kind,  and  by  voice  or  in  their  own  con- 
sciousness make  use  of  terms  or  associations  that 
give  fixedness  to  such  a  classification  or  differ- 
entiation: just  so  long  will  the  deaf  be  strangers 
in  the  land  in  which  they  dwell;  and  just  so  far 
will  they  be  removed  from  the  place  in  society 
which  should  be  theirs,  and  which  is  accorded  to 
all  the  rest  of  their  fellow-men. 

With  regard  to  their  economic  position  in  the 
world,  the  deaf  have,  on  the  whole,  fared  well. 
Their  own  achievements  have  thrown  out  of  court 
the  charge  that  they  are  a  burden  upon  society. 


314  THE  DEAF 

It  has  been  proved  by  themselves  that  they  are 
not  a  dependent  class,  or  a  class  that  should  exist 
to  any  degree  on  the  bounty  of  the  state.  They 
are  wage-earners  to  an  extent  that  compares  well 
with  the  rest  of  the  population,  and,  economi- 
cally, they  form  generally  a  self-sustaining  part 
of  society.  For  a  certain  number  who  are  aged 
and  infirm  and  are  otherwise  uncared  for, 
special  homes  are  to  be  desired — and  with  such 
the  need  is  peculiarly  strong.  These,  however, 
do  not  comprise  a  large  part  of  the  deaf;  and 
with  their  exception  there  is  practically  no  por- 
tion, at  least  of  those  with  an  education,  that  de- 
mands particular  economic  attention. 

The  community  for  the  most  part  has  been 
quite  ready  and  willing  to  recognize  the  status 
of  the  deaf  in  this  respect.  Here  the  deaf  are 
accepted  on  equal  terms  with  the  people  collec- 
tively, and  are  in  fact  lost  in  the  mass  of  the 
world's  workers. 

The  state  has  perhaps  displayed  more  re- 
luctance to  admit  the  deaf  to  the  standing  of  its 
other  citizens,  largety  no  doubt  due  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  sphere  of  law  action  is  usually  slow- 
moving,  and  responds  less  readily  to  newly  rec- 
ognized conditions.  Though  on  the  statute  books 
there  are  found  few  examples  of  legislation 
directed  to  the  deaf  as  if  they  were  peculiarly  in 
need  of  the  state's  attention,  and  though  such  are 


CONCLUSIONS  315 

hardly  more  than  reminders  of  the  past  legal 
attitude,  they  are  mostly  an  anachronism  to-day, 
and  should  in  great  part  be  removed. 

The  courts  have  quite  generally  adopted  the 
true  view  in  regard  to  the  deaf,  and  hardly  any- 
where now  differentiate  them.  There  is  always 
one  particular  kind  of  provision  which  may  be 
made  for  the  deaf  at  law,  and  this  is  in  the  em- 
ployment of  interpreters  on  proper  occasion. 
But  even  here  the  inatter  may  be  left  to  the  or- 
dinary rules  of  the  court,  as  well  as  to  the  good 
sense  and  justice  of  the  law-makers  and  the  law- 
dispensers. 

In  most  things,  special  attention  of  the  law 
in  relation  to  the  deaf  is  not  often  required,  and 
they  should,  in  nearly  all  respects,  be  left  in  its 
eyes  exactly  as  the  rest  of  their  fellow-citizens. 
When  particular  legislation  is  called  for  in 
respect  to  them,  it  is  needed  rather  to  meet  some 
peculiar  or  unusual  situation,  which  would  prob- 
ably arise  most  frequently  in  connection  with 
some  special  abuse  of  the  deaf,  though  such  is 
really  seldom  likely  to  occur.  Provision  for 
young  deaf  children  who  are  otherwise  without 
protection  may  well  be  included  in  "  children's 
codes,"  or  in  other  statutes  of  similar  kind.  Use- 
ful legislation  is  also  feasible  in  connection  with 
departments  for  the  deaf  in  state  bureaus  of 
labor,  the  procedure  possible  being  already  in- 


316  THE  DEAF 

dicated;  and  it  may  be  that  a  considerable  field 
will  be  revealed,  not  only  in  assisting  the  deaf  in 
securing  employment  but  also  in  securing  in- 
formation as  to  their  condition.  Opportunity  is 
open  to  the  national  government  likewise  in  this 
regard,  and  valuable  statistics  and  other  informa- 
tion may  be  collected  for  the  country  generally. 

In  one  further  direction  the  law  can  be  in- 
voked very  materially  in  aid  of  the  deaf,  and  just 
where  very  little  has  been  attempted.  In  every 
state  there  should  be  enactments,  backed  up  by 
vigorous  public  opinion  and  the  co-operation  of 
all  citizens,  providing  severe  punishment  for 
those  who  go  about  begging  alms  on  the  pretense 
that  they  are  deaf  and  dumb.  For  such  creatures 
the  law  should  have  no  mercy.  The  deaf  them- 
selves demand  that  such  impostors  be  put  out  of 
business,  for  a  real  and  cruel  injury  is  done  to 
them.  They  ask  this  as  a  great  boon,  but  it 
should  be  accorded  them  absolutely  as  a  right. 

The  deaf  do  not  want  alms  or  pity.  But  in 
unnumbered  ways  can  they  receive  good  at  the 
hands  of  their  fellow-men.  They  need  friends 
as  do  all  others,  and  power  is  never  lost  to  the 
right  hand  of  fellowship.  To  be  desired  above 
all  else  is  the  gaining  of  the  right  attitude  on  the 
part  of  the  community.  As  one  great  need,  there 
should  be  far  more  attention  to  the  social  and 
spiritual  concerns  of  the  deaf,  even  though  they 


CONCLUSIONS  317 

are  often  found  scattered  and  far  apart.  There 
is  much  that  can  be  done  in  many  communities  of 
a  social  nature  for  the  deaf,  and  in  manifold  forms 
can  life  be  made  more  abundant  for  them.  Most 
important  of  all,  there  should  be  no  longer  in 
any  place  a  neglect  of  the  ministrations  for  the 
cure  of  souls,  and  it  should  be  seen  that  all  of  the 
deaf  are  made  to  know  the  religion  of  the  Man 
of  Galilee,  with  its  untold  blessings  and  consola- 
tions. 

In  our  present  review  of  the  work  for  the  deaf 
in  America,  most  of  our  attention  has  been  di- 
rected to  the  provisions  for  their  education.  It 
may  be  said  that  to-day  this  work  is  as  a  rule  of 
a  high  order,  and  that  in  many  respects,  consider- 
ing the  problems  involved,  it  can  compare  well 
with  the  work  of  education  in  general.  There  is 
still  more  or  less  conflict  as  to  methods,  but  this 
does  not  seem  vital  to  the  success  of  the  schools, 
and  their  character  has  in  general  advanced. 

In  the  beginning  of  instruction  in  some  of  the 
states  we  read  of  the  struggles  of  the  early 
schools,  but  eager  hands  came  to  push  on  the 
new  work.  This  work  was  taken  up  with  an  en- 
thusiasm and  earnestness  scarcely  paralleled  else- 
where in  the  history  of  education,  or  in  any  other 
of  the  great  movements  for  the  betterment  of 
human  kind.     Strong  and  brave  souls  manned 


318  THE  DEAF 

the  new  enterprise,  and  these  early  workers  are 
well  worthy  of  honor  at  our  hands. 

Oftentimes,  at  the  first,  private  societies  came 
forward  as  volunteers  in  the  task  of  education, 
but  the  states  early  recognized  their  duty,  and 
usually  established  schools  as  soon  as  they  were 
deemed  practicable,  either  taking  over  the  exist- 
ing private  school  or  creating  one  of  their  own. 
After  a  time,  as  another  stage  in  their  develop- 
ment, the  schools  were  made  free  by  express  pro- 
vision, or  have  become  so  to  all  practical  purpose. 
In  time  also  all  restrictions  or  limitations  as  to 
the  admission  of  pupils  have  been  in  general 
swept  away,  and  rules  and  regulations  have  come 
more  and  more  to  conform  with  those  in  the  reg- 
ular schools.  Now  education  is  offered  to  every 
deaf  child,  and  to  the  poor  and  destitute  the  state 
provides  all  collateral  necessaries  as  well,  so  that 
instruction  may  be  denied  to  none. 

At  present  much  the  larger  part  of  the  deaf 
are  educated  in  institutions.  But  alongside  this 
plan  there  has  grown,  especially  of  late  years,  a 
day  school  system  with  the  pupils  living  in  their 
own  homes,  and  the  result  is  that  in  a  number 
of  states  such  schools  have  now  been  established. 
Their  main  field  is  recognized  to  be  in  large  cities, 
and  it  is  here  that  they  are  able  to  be  of  the 
greatest  usefulness.  It  is  still  a  mooted  point, 
however,  how  far  they  have  passed  the  experi- 


CONCLUSIONS  819 

mental  stage,  and  it  probably  remains  to  be  de- 
termined to  what  extent  they  really  offer  ad- 
vantages to  the  deaf  over  the  institutions.  As  a 
part  of  this  activity,  and  as  an  extension  of  the 
general  public  facilities  for  education  to  the  en- 
tire community,  we  have  also  the  question  of 
evening  schools  for  adult  deaf.  There  seems  to 
be  a  definite  need  for  them  in  certain  centers, 
and  it  may  well  be  hoped  that  much  greater  at- 
tention will  be  given  to  the  matter. 

All  the  schools  are  really  parts  of  the  public 
school  system,  with  the  exception  of  a  compara- 
tively small  number  of  private  schools  which  have 
been  create'd  in  certain  communities.  In  addi- 
tion, the  work  in  America  is  characterized  by  a 
national  college,  which  represents  the  complet- 
ing mark  in  the  system  of  their  instruction.  By 
this  the  education  of  the  deaf  is  made  not  only 
to  stand  all  along  the  way  parallel  with  educa- 
tion in  general,  but  also  to  assume  a  place  ac- 
corded it  in  no  other  land. 

In  the  schools  one  of  the  great  features  is  the 
industrial  instruction,  and  this  is  rightly  em- 
phasized. As  much  as  the  need  of  vocational 
training  is  insisted  upon  on  all  sides  to-day,  with 
the  deaf  it  is  essential  to  a  greater  degree 
than  it  can  be  anywhere  else.  The  pupils  of  the 
schools  who  have  had  this  industrial  training  as  a 
rule  do  well  in  the  world,  and  in  many  cases  put 


820  THE  DEAF 

their  training  to  most  practical  account.  It  could 
be  wished,  however,  that  we  had  a  careful  and 
detailed  record,  uniform  over  the  country,  of  the 
former  pupils,  which  would  be  a  test,  demon- 
strative as  well  as  suggestive,  of  the  efficiency  of 
the  industrial  training  of  the  schools,  and  which 
would  be  equally  of  value  in  other  spheres  of  in- 
dustrial education. 

Though  in  the  work  of  the  educaton  of  the  deaf 
in  America,  industrial  instruction  occupies  a  very 
prominent  part,  yet  in  the  schools  there  is  an 
abundance  of  "  schooling  "  in  the  strictest  sense. 
The  problems  of  the  education  of  the  deaf  are 
peculiar,  and  their  instructors  have  to  face 
difficulties  of  a  kind  not  found  in  any  other 
lines  of  education.  Yet  earnest  thought  and 
study  are  being  given  to  these  problems,  and 
efforts  made  to  solve  them  as  far  as  it  is  possible. 
In  the  conventions  and  conferences  of  instructors 
notable  work  has  been  accomplished,  and  these 
bodies  are  insistent  upon  progress  and  better 
results. 

For  the  greater  efficiency  and  success  of  the 
schools,  the  law  as  well  as  public  sentiment  can 
be  called  in  aid.  Deaf  children  everywhere  should 
be  prevailed  upon  or  compelled  to  enter  the 
schools,  and  should  be  required  to  remain  as  long 
as  their  best  interests  demand  it.  Education 
should  be  a  matter,  forced  if  need  be,  for  every 


CONCLUSIONS  821 

deaf  child,  for  terrible  as  ignorance  always  is, 
in  the  deaf  it  is  the  most  dreadful  of  all. 

In  America  private  assistance  to  schools  for 
the  deaf  has  not  been  great,  and  very  few  schools 
have  been  beneficiaries  from  resources  other  than 
the  state's.  To-day,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
cases,  aid  from  private  means  has  ceased  to  be 
expected,  and  calls  for  such  bounty  are  now 
seldom  made. 

At  present  nearly  all  the  schools  are  public  in- 
stitutions, and  rely  entirely  upon  the  care  of  the 
state.  The  state  has  in  general  recognized  its 
duty  towards  the  education  of  the  deaf,  and  has 
engaged  to  provide  for  it.  In  half  of  the  states 
this  responsibility  is  recognized,  and  provision 
guaranteed  in  the  organic  law.  In  all  the  states 
the  legislatures  have  undertaken  to  see  that  means 
of  instruction  are  offered  to  all  their  deaf  chil- 
dren, and  it  is  found  that,  all  things  considered, 
the  states  have  in  general  taken  a  keen  interest 
in  their  educational  welfare.  Few  schools  can 
boast  of  overgenerous  appropriations;  many  not 
infrequently  have  failed  to  receive  all  that  has 
been  asked  for,  and  have  thus  often  been  pre- 
vented from  doing  their  best  work.  Yet  it  may 
be  said  that  if  the  legislatures  have  not  always 
responded  with  alacrity,  or  always  bounteously, 
or  at  all  times  with  a  full  sense  of  their  responsi- 
bility, they  have  responded  at  least  with  cheerful- 


THE  DEAF 

ness,  and  mindful  of  all  the  calls  upon  the  state's 
treasury,  and  often  according  to  the  best  of  their 
light.  It  has  been  realized  that  the  education  of 
the  deaf  is  an  expensive  undertaking,  far  more  so 
than  the  education  of  ordinary  children;  but  it  is 
none  the  less  reahzed  also  that  this  education 
pays — pays  from  every  possible  point  of  view. 

That  the  school  for  the  deaf  is  not  given  its  full 
educational  recognition  is  a  grievance  in  some 
states,  and  this  cannot  be  regarded  otherwise 
than  unfortunate.  In  time,  however,  this  will 
most  likely  be  changed,  and  the  schools  every- 
where will  come  into  their  proper  standing,  and 
be  considered  only  as  the  agencies  of  the  state 
for  the  education  of  its  children. 

The  most  deplorable  thing  in  the  treatment  of 
the  schools  by  the  state  is  that  in  some  quarters 
politics  with  its  baneful  influence  has  been  al- 
lowed to  interfere.  But  as  hideous  and  disgrace- 
ful as  is  this  action,  we  may  now  believe  that  in 
most  places  its  back  has  been  broken,  and  that 
hereafter  men  everywhere  will  think  better  of 
themselves  than  to  allow  it  in  a  single  instance. 

Finally,  in  respect  to  the  work  for  the  deaf  in 
America  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  state 
makes  but  one  form  of  provision  in  their  behalf. 
This  is  in  allowing  to  all  its  deaf  children  a 
means  of  education.  Even  this  is  hardly  to  be 
called  "  provision  for  the  deaf."    It  is  rather  the 


CONCLUSIONS  323 

attention  that  is  paid  to  a  certain  portion  of  the 
population  for  its  education.  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  provision  for  general  educa- 
tion only  in  that  special  means  and  methods  are 
necessary  for  its  accomplishment. 

This  being  done,  the  state  may  practically  let 
the  deaf  alone.  No  distinctive  form  of  public 
treatment  is  usually  to  be  called  for  in  respect  to 
them  as  a  class.  They  demand  little  in  the  way  of 
special  care  or  oversight,  they  are  able  as  a  rule 
to  look  after  themselves,  asking  few  odds  not 
asked  by  other  men,  they  have  become  citizens 
without  reservation  or  qualification,  and  economi- 
cally they  form  no  distinct  class,  but  are  absorbed 
into  the  industrial  life  of  the  state.  They  have 
assumed  the  responsibilities  of  life  in  a  highly 
organized  community,  and  in  turn  reap  the 
benefits  that  belong  to  all  men  in  such  an  order. 
But  though  this  is  true,  their  affliction  bestowed 
upon  them  by  the  partial  hand  of  nature,  is  not 
to  be  minimized,  nor  its  effects  lightened  by  any 
human  words.  Their  deafness  rests  indeed  upon 
them  as  a  very  material,  tangible  burden,  so 
sharp  and  pointed  in  its  operations  that  they  are 
in  great  measure  cut  off  socially  from  the  rest  of 
their  kind.  Because  of  this  their  concern  becomes 
great  in  respect  to  the  form  of  consideration  from 
the  community  about  them,  and  their  need  turns 
to  one  not  so  much  of  material  character  as  of  the 


SM  THE  DEAF 

^  attention  of  the  good  neighbor.  From  their  con- 
dition all  the  more  does  it  avail  that  no  further 
load  should  be  placed  upon  them,  and  that  their 
prayer  should  be  heard  that  they  be  treated  fully 
as  men.  For  even  with  their  ever  missing  sense, 
the  power  of  the  deaf  is  only  retarded,  and  not 
seriously  diminished,  to  derive  from  life  much  of 
its  richness  and  color  and  well-being. 


APPENDIX  A 


HOMES  FOR  THE  DEAF  IN  AMERICA 


Name 

State 

Location 

Year 
Found- 
ed 

Number 

OF 

Inmates 

Annual 
Cost  OS- 
Sup- 
port 

Gallaudet 
Home 

New  York 

W^^mger', 

1885 

24 

87.311 

Ohio  Home  for 
Aged  and  Infirm 
Deaf 

St.  F.liTiabeth'a 
Industrial  School 

Ohio 
New  York 

Westerville 
New  York  City 

1896 
1897 

30 
20 

6,710 
8,433 

New  England 
Home  for  Deaf- 
Mutes 

Massa- 
chusetts 

Everett 

1901 

13 

3,198 

Pennsylvania 
Home  for  the  Deaf 

Penn- 
sylvania 

Doyleston 

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INDEX 


Accidents  as  a  cause  of  deaf- 
ness, 17. 

Admission  into  schools,  157, 
166-168,  262-267.  See  Fees ; 
Restrictions. 

Adult  deaf  in  schools,  267n. 
See  Evening  schools ; 
Homes. 

Adventitious  deafness,  lG-40; 
ages  of  occurrence  of,  18; 
action  for  the  prevention 
of,  21-26;  as  an  increasing 
or  decreasing  phenom- 
enon, 27-40;  causes  of,  17- 
21 ;  conclusions  respecting, 
59,  60,  309. 

Age  of  occurrence  of  deaf- 
ness, 7-10,  12,  17,  18. 

Agricola,  Rudolph,  121. 

Aid  to  the  deaf,  see  Homes 
for   the   deaf;    Legislation; 

Private  organizations.    

for  schools,  see  Clothing 
and  transportation ;  Pri- 
vate benefactions. 

Aims  of  first  schools,  147- 
154. 

Alabama,  education  in,  172, 
176n,  182,   184,  209,  297. 

Alms-houses,  deaf  in,  79. 

Alms-seekers,  deaf  as,  83-85, 
316. 

Alphabet  for  deaf,  see  Man- 
ual alphabet. 

American  Association  to  Pro- 
mote the  Teaching  of 
Speech  to  the  Deaf,  109, 
113,  114. 

American  possessions,  educa- 
tion in,  240.     . 


American  School,  132n,  134- 
139,  141n,  156n,  181,  299, 
306.    See  Connecticut. 

Amman,  John,  124. 

Ancient  treatment  of  deaf,  63, 
119. 

"  Annals  of  the  Deaf,  Ameri- 
can",  115. 

Appropriations  for  schools, 
state,  136,  161,  163,  295, 
321.  See  Day  schools; 
Semi-public  schools. 

Arizona,  education  in,  185, 
209,  300. 

Arkansas,  education  in,  183, 
210. 

Associations  of  the  deaf,  see 
Societies. 

"Asylums",  use  of  term,  104, 
148,  251n,  256n. 

Attendance  in  schools,  165, 
268-276.     See  Age  limits. 

Auricular  instruction,  283, 
285-287. 

Austine  Institution,  306.  Se6 
Vermont. 

Baker,  Henry,  123. 

Baptist  Church,  work  of,  see 
Church  work. 

Bartlett,  David  E.,  156n. 

Bede,  Venerable,  121. 

Bell,  A.  G.,  5n,  108. 

Benefactions,  see  Private  bene- 
factions ;  Endowment  funds. 

Blind  associated  with  deaf, 
99n.    See  Dual  schools. 

Boarding  institutions,  168, 169» 
187. 

Boiling,  William,  131. 
333 


INDEX 


Bonet,  Juan,  122. 
Bonifaccio,   Giovanni,   121. 
Braidwood,  John,  131,  132. 
Braidwood,  Thomas,  127. 
Bulwer,  John,  122. 

Califobnia,  education  in, 
176.  183,  191,  192,  193,  202, 
204,  210,  305. 

Camerarius,  Rudolph,  125. 

Carion,  Ramirez  de,  123. 

Cardano,  Giralamo,  121. 

Castro,  Pietro  de,  121. 

Catholic  Church,  work  of,  see 
Church  work ;  Denomina- 
tional schools. 

Causes  of  deafness,  see  Adven- 
titious deafness;  Congenital 
deafness. 

Census  of  deaf,  how  taken, 
5n,  14. 

Charges  to  pupils,  «ee  Fees; 
Restrictions. 

Charities,  boards  of,  182,  183. 
fi'ee  Charity;  States,  pro- 
vision in. 

Charity  in  connection  with 
schools,  104,  147,  248-261, 
322;  conclusions  respecting, 
260;  in  best  sense,  249;  in 
legal  sense,  252n ;  opposition 
to  connection,  256;  popular 
conceptions  of  charity,  250; 
regard  by  states,  248 ;  views 
of  boards  of  charities,  254; 
views  of  deaf,  259;  views 
of  instructors,  259. 

Church  work  for  deaf,  96, 
110-113.  See  Private  bene- 
factions. 

Cities,  aid  of  to  schools,  161- 
163,  301.  See  Day  schools; 
States,  provision  in. 

Clarke  School,  281,  306.  See 
Massachusetts. 

Classes  of  pupils,  see  Grada- 
tions, 

Classical  allusions  to  the 
deaf,   119. 

Clerc,  Laurent,  135. 


Clothing    and    transportation 
provided    for     pupils,     255, 
264,   265,   296,   307. 
Clubs  of  deaf,  see  Societies. 
Cogswell,  Alice,  134. 
College  for  the  deaf,  see  Gal- 

laudet   College. 
Colorado,    education    in,    176, 

184,  211,  297,  305. 
Colonies  for  the  deaf,  89n. 
Combined  method  of  instruc- 
tion, 283,  285-287. 

Communication,  methods  of 
among  deaf,  11,  12,  277- 
287. 

Compulsory  education,  272- 
276,  320. 

Conference  of  Principals, 
113,  114. 

Congenital  deafness,  41-60 ; 
as  an  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing phenomenon,  57;  con- 
clusions respecting,  60-62, 
310 ;  consanguineous  mar- 
riages aflfecting,  42;  deaf 
parents  affecting,  46;  deaf 
relatives  affecting,  45;  pos- 
sible action  for  the  preven- 
tion of,  52. 

Congregational  Church,  work 
of,  see  Church  work. 

Congress,  action  of,  see  Na- 
tional government. 

Connecticut,  education  in,  136, 
138,  171,  173,  183,  211,  305. 
See  American  School. 

Consanguineous  marriages,  42, 
54,  60.  See  Congenital 
deafness. 

Constitutional  provisions,  64, 
169,  242-247.  321. 

Control,  boards  of,  183. 

Convention  of  American  In- 
structors of  the  Deaf,  113, 
114. 

Corporations,  see  Semi-pub- 
lic schools. 

Cost  of  education,  293-298, 
322;  for  maintenance.  295; 
for  new  buildings,  294;  in 
day  schools,  192;  per  pupil. 


INDEX 


298;  to  states  sending  out- 
side, 297.  See  Property, 
value  of ;  Semi-public 
schools. 

County  aid  to  schools,  162, 
265,  296;  officers,  work  of, 
166,  275n. 

Courses  of  study,  287. 

Court  decisions  relating  to 
deaf,  65,  71.  See  Law,  atti- 
tude of. 

Crimes,  responsibility  of  deaf 
for,  65,  72. 

Dactylology,  see  Manual 
alphabet. 

Dalgarno,  George,  123. 

Day  schools,  168,  187-201, 
318 ;  arguments  against, 
197 ;  arguments  for,  194 ;  co- 
operation with  institutions, 
189,  190;  co-ordination  with 
)  public  schools,  190,  193 ;  de- 
sign of,  188;  equipment  of, 
1  193,  196;  evening  schools  as 
part  of,  200,  201;  institu- 
tions as,  187 ;  laws  for,  192 ; 
number,  187,  191;  pupils  in, 
193;  support,  192,  193.  See 
Methods  of  instruction ; 
States,  provision  in. 

"  Deaf  ",  meaning  of  term,  3. 

"  D e a f-a n d-d  u m  b  ",  see 
"  Deaf  ". 

Deaf-blind,  5n,  178-179,  307. 

"Deaf-mute",  9n,  286n.  See 
"  Deaf  ". 

"  Deaf -mutism  ",  lOln. 

Deafness  in  different  states,  5. 

"Defective"  class,  the  deaf 
as  a,  100. 

Delaware,  education  in,  141, 
171,  185,  212. 

Denominational  and  private 
schools,  168,  202-205,  319. 
See  Methods  of  instruction; 
States,  provisions  in. 

Dependent  class,  the  deaf  as 
a,  103.  See  Economic  condi- 
tion. 


Deschamps,   126. 

Difficulties  of  early  schools, 
144,  145,  164,  165. 

Diseases,  effect  of,  see  Adven- 
titious  deafness. 

District  of  Columbia,  educa- 
tion in,  171,  172n,  182,  185n, 
212,  213,  296,  305.  See  Gal- 
laudet  College. 

Dual  schools,  173,  176,  177, 
293n,  294n,  295n. 

Dues,  see  Fees. 

"  Dumbness  ",  see  "  Deaf  ". 


Eab,  diseases  of,  see  Adventi- 
tious Deafness. 

Early  attempts  at  instruction, 

129-133.      workers, 

character  of,  155,  156. 

Economic  condition  of  deaf, 
75-90,  314,  316;  conclusions 
respecting,  90;  deafness,  ef- 
fect of,  75,  80,  83;  occupa- 
tions of  deaf,  76,  77 ;  unions, 
members  of,  82n;  views  of 
deaf,  81;  wage-earners,  ex- 
tent as,  76-78,  81,  82. 
See  Alms-houses ;  Dependent 
class;  Homes;  Industrial 
training. 

Education,  associations  for, 
113,  114;  boards  of,  184, 
185,  248,  258;  See  States, 
provision  in.  ,  con- 
dition of  deaf  before,  146, 
148-154,  312. 

Employment  of  deaf,  see  Eco- 
nomic condition. 

Endowment  funds,  172,  174, 
295.  See  Private  benefac- 
tions. 

England,  early  education  in, 
121-123,  127. 

Ep6e,    abb6    de    1',    126,    127. 

Ephpheta  School,  306.  See 
Illinois. 

Eugenics,  see  Congenital  deaf- 
ness. 

Europe,   first  schools  in,  119- 


336 


INDEX 


128;  recognition  in  of  work 

in  America,  170n. 
Evening    schools    for    adults, 

200,  201. 
Exhibits  of  deaf  pupils,  136, 

142,  158,  159,  160. 

Farming  as  an  industry,  83n, 
90n,  291,  292.  See  Economic 
condition. 

Fay,  Barnabas  M.,  156n. 

Feeble-minded  deaf,  179,  180. 

Fees  for  pupils,  143,  157.  See 
Admission  into  schools;  De- 
nominational schools ;  Re- 
strictions.    in  semi- 
public  schools,  membership, 
156,  173,  181,  304. 

Fiction,  deaf  in,  lOOn. 

Finger-spelling,  see  Manual 
alphabet;  Sign  language. 

First  schools,  131,  134-144. 

Florida,  education  in,  176, 
183,  184,  213. 

France,  early  education  in, 
125-127. 

Fraternal  organizations  of 
deaf,  95,  96. 

Gallaudet  College,  168,  206- 
208,  265n,  319.  See  District 
of  Columbia. 

Gallaudet,  Edward  Miner, 
207n. 

Gallaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins, 
134-136,  138n,  156n. 

Georgia,  education  in,  138, 143, 
182,  191,  193,  204n,  214. 

Germany,  early  education  in, 
121,  124,  125. 

Gifts,  see  Private  benefac- 
tions. 

Government  of  institutions, 
180-185.  See  States,  pro- 
vision in. 

Gradations  of  pupils,  287-289. 

Graduates  of  schools,  80,  288, 
289. 

Green,  Francis,  130. 

Guardians  for  deaf,  67,  68. 


"Habd  of  hearing",  3n; 
schools  for,  202n. 

narrower,  John,  129. 

Hearing  in  school  children,  de- 
fective, 24. 

Hebrew  work  for  deaf,  see 
Church  work. 

Heinicke,  Samuel,  125. 

Heredity,  see  Congenital  deaf- 


Holder,  William,  123. 

Holland,  early  education  in, 
124. 

Homes  for  deaf,  85-89,  314; 
extent  of,  87,  88;   purpose, 

86;    support,   89.     for 

children,  254n,  296n.  See 
Denominational  and  pri- 
vate schools;  Boarding  in- 
stitutions. 

Horace  Mann  School,  188,  282. 
See  Massachusetts. 

Hubbell,  Horatio  N.,  156n. 

Hutton,  Abraham  B.,  156n. 

Idaho,  education  in,  176,  183, 
184,  214. 

Ideas  of  early  schools,  144- 
147. 

Illinois,  education  in,  144,  183, 
191,  192,  193,  202,  204,  214, 
215,  305. 

Immigration  in  respect  to 
deaf,  66.      ' 

Impostors  simulating  d  e  a  f- 
ness,  82-84,  316. 

Increase  of  deafness,  see  Ad- 
ventitious deafness ;  Congen- 
ital deafness. 

Indiana,  education  in,  142, 
157,  183,  184,  216. 

Indigent  pupils,  see  Admission 
into  schools;  Clothing  and 
transportation ;  Fees ;  Re- 
strictions. 

Industrial  training,  80,  169, 
193,  199,  205,  290-292,  319. 

Institutions,  general  arrange- 
ments of,  171-186;  govern- 
ment,   180-185 ;    arguments 


INDEX 


337 


against,  194 ;  arguments  for, 
197.  See  Boarding  institu- 
tions ;  Methods  of  instruc- 
tion; States,  provisions  in. 

Instructors,  associations  of, 
113,  114;  number  of,  288; 
training  schools  for,  289n. 

Insurance  companies  and  the 
deaf,  104;  among  the  deaf, 
95,  96. 

Interpreters  for  deaf,  65,  74, 
112n. 

Iowa,  education  in,  144,  183, 
216. 

Italy,  early  education  in,  121, 
124. 

Jacobs,  John  A.,  156n. 

E^ANSAS,  education  in,  184, 
217. 

Kendall  School,  see  Gallaudet 
College;  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Kentucky,  education  in,  141, 
142,  157,  164n,  184,  217,  297, 
299. 

Kerger,  125. 

Kerr,  William  D.,  156n. 

Kilpatrick,  John,  132. 

Kindergarten  departments, 
see  Denominational  and  pri- 
vate schools;  Gradations  of 
pupils. 

Labor  bureaus  for  deaf,  71, 
81n. 

Ladies'  societies,  88n,  161n, 
173n. 

Land  given  for  schools,  137, 
141,  162,  299-302.  See 
States,  provisions  in. 

Language,  difficulty  of  for 
deaf,  198,  201,  287. 

Law,  general  attitude  of  to- 
ward deaf,  63-74;  trend  of, 
73;  need  of  changed  regard, 
314.  See  Legal  exceptions; 
Legislation. 

Le  Couteulx  St.  Mary's  Insti- 
tution, 306.    See  New  York. 


Legal    exceptions,     views    of 

deaf  respecting,  74n. 
Legislation  in  aid  of  deaf,  68- 

71;    discriminatory,    66;    in 

protection,  67,  68. 
Legislatures,   appeals  to,   159, 

160.       See    Appropriations ; 

Law,    attitude    of;     States, 

provisions  in. 
Lip-reading,     10,     284.       See 

Speech. 
Location  of  schools,  163,  301. 
Louisiana,  education  in,  172n, 

183,  184,  191,  193,  202,  218. 
Lutheran  Church,  work  of,  see 

Church     work ;     Denomina- 
tional schools. 

McIntyee,  Thomas,  156n. 

Maine,  education  in,  138,  183, 
218. 

Mann,  Horace,  281. 

Manual  alphabet,  11,  12,  277, 
278.    See  Sign  language. 

Manual  alphabet  method,  285- 
287. 

Manual  method,  285-287. 

Maryland,  education  in,  141, 
172,  173,  176n,  183,  202-205, 
219. 

Marriages  of  deaf,  advisa- 
bility of,  46,  54-56;  laws  to 
prohibit,  56n;  partners  in, 
55;  possibilities  of  deaf  off- 
spring, 46-52.  See  Congeni- 
tal deafness. 

Massachusetts,  education  in, 
130,  138,  171,  173,  184,  191, 
193n,  219,  305.  See  Clarke 
School;  Horace  Mann 
School;  New  England  In- 
dustrial School ;  Sarah 
Fuller  Home. 

Medical  bodies  and  preven- 
tion of  deafness,  25,  26. 
See  Adventitious  deafness. 

Mendicancy,  see  Alms-seekers. 

Methodist  Church,  work  of, 
see  Church  work. 

Methods  of  instruction,  193, 
205,  277-287. 


INDEX 


Michigan,    education   in,    183, 

191,  192,  202,  221,  301. 
Middle  ages,  education  in,  120, 
Minnesota,  education  in,  183, 

184,  191,  193,  222. 
Mississippi,  education  in,  182, 

223. 
Missions,  see  Church  work  for 

deaf;  Legislation  in  aid  of 

deaf. 
Missouri,   education  in,   142n, 

144,  183,  191,  193,  202,  223. 
Montana,    education    in,    176, 

182,  183,  184,  224,  300. 
Montans,  Peter,  124. 
"  Mute  ",  see  "  Deaf  ". 

National  college,  see  Gallau- 
det  College. 

National  Educational  Associ- 
ation, 114. 

National  government,  granting 
land  for  schools,  137,  141, 
162,  299,  300;  creating  Gal- 
laudet  College,  206-208. 
See  District  of  Columbia. 

Nebraska,  education  in,  183, 
224. 

Negroes,  education  of,  172, 
176n,  185n,  268n. 

Nelson  Philip,  129. 

Nevada,  education  in,  171,  185, 
224. 

New  England  School,  306.  See 
Massachusetts. 

New  England  states,  interest 
in    American    School,    136, 

137,  138. 

New  Hampshire,  education  in, 

138,  171,  185,  225. 

New  Jersey,  education  in,  140, 
141,  184,  191,  192,  225. 

New  Mexico,  education  in,  182, 
185n,  225. 

New  York,  education  in,  131, 

139,  140,  148n,  171,  173,  183, 
184,  191-193,  204,  226-229, 
305.  See  Le  Couteulx  St. 
Mary's  Institution ;  New 
York  Institution ;  New  York 
Institution  for  Improved  In- 


struction; St.  Joseph's  In- 
stitution. 

New  York  Institution,  131, 
132n,  139,  140,  161n,  187n, 
280n,  306.     See  New  York. 

New  York  Institution  for  Im- 
proved Instruction,  281,  306. 
See  New  York. 

North  Carolina,  education  in, 
143,  172,  176n,  183,  184,  229. 

North  Dakota,  education  in, 
183,  230,  297,  300. 

Occupations  of  deaf,  see  Eco- 
nomic condition. 
CEcolampadius,  124. 
Offspring,  deaf,  see  Marriages 

of  deaf. 
Ohio,  education  in,  142,  143n, 

157n,  183,  191,  192,  202,  205, 

230. 
Oklahoma   education   in,    172, 

176,  183,  184,  185n,  231. 
Opinions  of  deaf,  see  Charity ; 

Economic   condition ;    Legal 

exceptions. 
Oral  method,   187n,   193,  205, 

279-287,  296n. 
Oregon,     education     in,     183, 

185n,  191,  232. 

Papers  of  deaf,  97,  116;  of 
schools,  116,  292.  See  Pub- 
lications for  deaf. 

Parents,  deaf,  and  offspring, 
see  Marriages  of  deaf. 

Parents'  associations,  109. 

Partially  deaf,  3n. 

Pasch,  125. 

Pay  pupils,  see  Fees. 

Peet,  Harvey  P.,  156n. 

Pereire,  126. 

Pennsylvania,     education     in, 

140,  141,  171,  173,  183,  202- 
204,  233,  234,  305.  See 
Pennsylvania  Institution ; 
Western  Pennsylvania  Insti- 
tution. 

Pennsylvania  Institution,  140, 

141,  181,  187n,  306.  See 
Pennsylvania. 


INDEX 


339 


Politics  in  schools,  185n,  322. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Pedro,  122. 

Popular  conceptions  of  deaf, 
99-106,  313,  314. 

Prevention  of  deafness,  see 
Adventitious  deafness;  Con- 
genital deafness. 

Principals,  Conference  of,  113, 
114. 

Private  benefactions,  135,  136, 
140,  142,  158,  160,  161,  163, 
173-176,  179,  181,  281,  295, 
296,  301,  303-308,  321.  See 
Denominational  and  private 
schools ;  Homes ;  Private  or- 
ganizations; States,  provis- 
ion in. 

Private  organizations  for 
deaf,  107-116.  See  Denom- 
national  schools;  Semi-pub- 
lic schools. 

Private  schools,  see  Denomi- 
national and  private 
schools. 

Property,  value  of,  293. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
work  of,  see  Church  work. 

Public  appropriations,  see  Ap- 
propriations. 

Public  schools,  deaf  in,  see 
Day  schools. 

Publications  for  deaf,  115, 
307n.  See  Papers;  Volta 
Bureau. 

Pupils,  at  beginning,  165; 
number  of,  288;  proportion 
i  n  attendance,  268-270. 
See  Clothing;  Fees;  Grada- 
tions; Restrictions. 

QuAsi-puBMc  schools,  see 
Semi-public  schools. 

Rae,  Luzerne,  156n. 
Raphel,  Georges,  125. 
Relatives,  deaf,  see  Congenital 

deafness. 
Relief  for  needy  deaf,  69,  95, 

112.  '       ' 

teligious    work,    see    Church 


work ;  Denominatioal 
schools. 

Restrictions,  157,  166,  262, 
263,  318.  See  Fees;  Age- 
limits. 

Rhode  Island,  education  in, 
138,  184,  234. 

St.  Francis  de  Sales,  124. 
St.    Joseph's   Institution,   306. 

See  New  York. 
Sarah     Fuller     Home,     306. 

See     Denominational     and 

private   schools ;    Massa- 
chusetts. 
Schott,  Gaspard,  125. 
Seixas,  David,  140. 
Self-supporting,   the   deaf   as, 

see  Economic  condition. 
"  Semi-deaf  ",  9n,  286n. 
♦'  Semi-mute  ",  9n,  286n. 
Semi-public  schools,  156,  172- 

176,     180,    181,    295n,     297, 

303. 
Sensational  accounts  of  deaf, 

105n. 
Settlements,    social,    work   of, 

107n. 
Sibscota,  George,  123. 
Sicard,  127. 
Sign    language,     11,     12,     92, 

187n,  277-279.     See  Manual 

alphabet. 
Societies  for  deaf,  see  Private 

organizations. 
Social    organization    of    deaf, 

91-98. 
Societies  of  the  deaf,  92-96; 

desirability,    93 ;     purposes, 

94-96. 
Solidarity  of  deaf,  78n,  94,  95. 
South  Carolina,  education  in, 

138,  144,  176,  182,  184,  235. 
South   Dakota,    education   in, 

183,  204n,  235,  300. 
Spain,  early  education  in,  122, 

123. 
Speech,  8-12,  279-284;  ability 

of  deaf  in,  8,  9,  284 ;  growth 

of    teaching    of,     282-284; 


340 


INDEX 


relation  to  sense  of  hearing, 
3,   4.     See   Oral   method. 

Stanford,  John,  131,  139. 

State,  action  of,  see  Law,  at- 
titude of. 

States,  provision  in,  209-241; 
lands  given  by,  301;  with- 
out schools,  procedure  in, 
169,  171,  185,  297.  See  Ap- 
propriations;  Charity;  Con- 
stitutional provisions;  Gov- 
ernment of  schools. 

Stone,  Collins,  156n. 

Strange  class,  deaf  as  a,  99. 

Subsidies,  see  Appropriations ; 
Semi-public  schools. 

Support  of  schools,  see  Cost. 

Tax,  exemptions  of  deaf  from, 
65,  69. 

Taxation  for  schools,  special, 
163,  172,  297. 

Teachers,  see  Instructors. 

Tennessee,  education  in,  143, 
182,  183,  184,  236. 

Terms,  see  Admission  of  pu- 
pils. 

Terzi,  Lana,  124. 

Texas,  education  in,  172,  176n, 
182,  236. 

Thornton,  William,  133n. 

Totally  deaf,  see  "  Deaf  ". 

Trades,  see  Industrial  train- 
ing; Economic  condition. 

Transportation,    see   Clothing. 

Trustees  of  schools,  163,  169, 
180-184,  185n.  See  Homes; 
Denominational  schools; 
States,  provisions  in. 

Turner,  William  W.,  156n. 

Unhappy  class,  deaf  as,  102. 
United     States,     number     of 


deaf  in,   5.     See   American 
possessions. 
Utah,  education  in,  176,  182, 
185n,  236,  300. 

Vagbants,  see  Imi)ostors. 

Value  of  property,  see  Prop- 
erty. 

Van  Helmont,  Jan  Baptista, 
124. 

Van  Nostrand,  Jacob,  156n.* 

Vanin,  126. 

Vermont,  education  in,  138, 
173,  176,  237. 

Virginia,  education  in,  131- 
133,  142,  172,  176,  183,  184, 
237. 

Volta  Bureau,  108,  109,  115. 

"  Volta  Review  ",  109,  115. 

Wages  paid  to  deaf,  see  Eco- 
nomic condition. 

Walker,  Newton  P.,  156n. 

Wallis,  John,  123. 

Washington,  education  in,  183, 
lS5n,  191,  192,  238. 

Weld,  Louis,  156n. 

West  Virginia,  education  in, 
172n,  176,  183,  185n,  238. 

Western  Pennsylvania  Institu- 
tion, 187n,  188n,  306.  See 
Pennsylvania. 

Wills  of  deaf,  65,  72,  73. 

Wisconsin,  education  in,  144, 
183,  188n,  191,  192,  202,  239. 

Witness,  the  deaf  as,  72. 

Writing  as  means  of  communi- 
cation, 11,  12,  285,  286. 

Wyoming,  education  in,  171, 
185,  240. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation, work  of,  107n. 


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